The history of the formation of medicine. The history of the formation and development of social medicine

Even in ancient times, in the early stage of human existence, knowledge of healing in the most primitive forms was observed. At the same time, hygiene standards were born, which constantly changed over time. In the process of accumulating experience and knowledge, people fixed medical and hygienic norms in the form of customs and traditions that contributed to protection from diseases and treatment. Subsequently, this area of ​​\u200b\u200bhealing developed into traditional medicine and.

Initially, as a rule, various forces of nature, such as the sun, water and wind, were used in the process of healing, as well as empirical medicines of both plant and animal origin, which were found in the wild, turned out to be important.

All sorts of diseases were originally presented by primitive people as some kind of evil forces penetrating the human body. Such myths arose because of the helplessness of people in front of the forces of nature and wild animals. In connection with similar theories about the development of diseases, the corresponding “magic” methods of curing them were also proposed. As medicines spells, prayers and much more were used. Sorcery and shamanism arose as the basis of psychotherapy, capable of providing beneficial effect on people, if only because they sincerely believed in the effectiveness of these measures.

The written monuments and other heritage of the past that have survived to our times are proved by the fact that the activities of healers were strictly regulated, both in terms of the ways to carry out a beneficial effect and the amount of fees that a healer could require for his services. An interesting fact is that along with mystical means, quite ordinary today were also used. medicinal herbs and curatives that remain effective and even sometimes can be used in modern medicine.

It should be noted that even in ancient times there were general rules personal hygiene, as well as applied gymnastics, water procedures and massage. In addition, in the case of complex diseases, even craniotomy could be used, as well as C-section in case of difficult childbirth. Folk medicine is of great importance in China, where it remains to this day, along with traditional medicine, and has more than two thousand medicines. However, most of them are no longer used today.

The writings that have come down to modern historians prove the existence of extensive knowledge of the healers of Central Asia, who lived in the first millennium BC. It was during this period that the rudiments of knowledge appeared in such areas as anatomy and physiology. human body. Numerous regulations arose, which still exist today, regarding pregnant women and nursing mothers, as well as hygiene and family life. The main focus of ancient medicine was the prevention of diseases, not their cure.

There were family doctors serving the rich and noble people, as well as itinerant and public doctors. The latter were engaged in gratuitous services aimed at preventing outbreaks of epidemics. It is worth noting the emergence of such schools as:

1. crotonian, the main scientific work of the founder of which was the doctrine of pathogenesis. It was based on treatment, according to which the opposite was treated with the opposite.
2. Knidos who was the founder of humoral medicine. Representatives of this school considered diseases a violation natural process displacement of fluids in the body.

The most famous is the teaching of Hippocrates, who was significantly ahead of his time in understanding the humoral cure of diseases. He designated the observation of the patient at the bedside as an extremely important event, on which he actually built his understanding of medicine. Having singled it out as a science of natural philosophy, Hippocrates unequivocally put lifestyle and hygiene at the forefront in the prevention of diseases. In addition, he substantiated and described the need individual approach to the treatment of each individual patient.

In the third century BC, the first understandings of the human brain were also described. In particular, Herophilus and Erasistratus provided evidence confirming the fact that the brain works as an organ of thinking. And besides this, the structure of the brain, its convolutions and ventricles, and the differences in the nerves responsible for the sense organs and motor functions were also described.

And already in the second century of the new era, the representative of Asia Minor - Pergamum summarized all the available information regarding each of the fields of medicine that existed at that time and understanding of the structure of the human body. In particular, he divided medicine into sections such as:

• Anatomy
• Physiology
• Pathology
• Pharmacology
• Pharmacognosy
• Therapy
• Obstetrics
• Hygiene

In addition to the fact that he created a full-fledged system of medical knowledge, he also brought a lot to it. He was the first to conduct experiments and research on animals, and not on living people, which brought with him very significant changes in the understanding of medicine in general. It was Pergamum who substantiated the need for knowledge of anatomy and physiology as a scientific basis in diagnosis, therapy and surgery. For many centuries, a slightly modified work of this author was used as the basis for all healers. It is worth noting that he was even recognized by the church and the clergy.

Medicine reached its heyday in ancient Rome, where aqueducts, sewers and baths were created, as well as military medicine was born. And Byzantium distinguished itself by the creation of large hospitals serving the ordinary population. At the same time, quarantines, infirmaries and monastic hospitals appear in Europe, which are explained by the raging.

The feudal Old Russian state was marked by fairly widespread medical books containing instructions, according to which almost all healers performed their functions. In particular, he divided doctors into narrower specialists, such as chiropractors, midwives, and others. In particular, there were doctors who cured hemorrhoids, sexually transmitted diseases, as well as hernias, rheumatism, and much more.

UDK 93/94 (093) (515)

JABON Yumzhana Zhalsanovna - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Senior Researcher at the Center for Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs of the Institute of Mongolian Studies, Buddhology and Tibetology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (670047, Russia, Republic of Buryatia, Ulan-Ude, Sakhyanova str., 6; [email protected])

VANNIKOVA Tsymzhit Purbyevna - Chief Researcher of the Center for Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs of the Institute of Mongolian Studies, Buddhology and Tibetology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (670047, Russia, Republic of Buryatia, Ulan-Ude, Sakhyanovoi St., 6; [email protected])

TO THE HISTORY OF TIBETAN MEDICINE: MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATION

Annotation. Based on previously unknown information from Tibetan medical writings, the article examines the stages of formation and development of Tibetan medicine (7th-17th centuries). The main attention is paid to the characteristics of the history of the early period. Fundamentally new is the division of the history of Tibetan medicine into the mythological period, the periods of the early, developed, late Middle Ages. The authors come to the conclusion that each of these periods has its own character traits in the development of medical knowledge in Tibet.

Key words: history of medicine, Tibetan medicine, periodization, Tibet, sources.

The question of the penetration of medical knowledge into Tibet first began to attract serious scientific interest since the 1970s. At this time, works began to appear that dealt with various aspects of the history of Tibetan medicine. Such attention of researchers to this topic is associated with the emigration of Tibetans to India and Nepal in 1959, which allowed researchers to gain wide access to Tibetan medical sources to establish direct personal contact with the bearers of Tibetan culture in general and with Tibetan doctors in particular.

In recent decades, the problems of studying the ancient history of Tibetan medical science sow rikpa (gso ba rig pa), its current state, the problems of its integration into European medicine have increasingly attracted the attention of modern researchers. However, special works devoted to the problems of periodization of the history of Tibetan medicine are still very few.

In the formation of Tibetan medicine, Tibetan scientists themselves distinguish the following main stages:

1) pre-Buddhist history of medicine (folk medicine, bod kyi gdod ma "i gso dpyad, about 500 BC - 618 AD);

2) the tradition of the Bon religion (bonpo "igso dpyad);

3) the development of medicine by the kings of the Yarlung dynasty (spu rgyal btsan po "i rgyal rabs kyi skab su bod kyi gso rig, around the 1st century BC until 842);

4) the formation of medicine during the period of the collapse of Tibet into several independent kingdoms (bod sil bu "i dus rabs su bod kyi gso rig, IX-XVII);

5) medicine of the theocratic state period (dga" ldanpho brangskabs kyi gso rig, XVII-XX).

At the same time, some Western researchers distinguish 3 stages in the development of Tibetan medicine: mythological, Ayurvedic and final, which, in their opinion, covers the period of development of medicine in Tibet from the 7th century BC. until now . However, the last version of periodization, in our opinion, does not quite correctly reflect the actual chronology of events in the history of Tibetan medicine. Here we can agree that the 1st stage is mythological or legendary, but we cannot agree with the singling out of the 2nd stage as Ayurvedic, since these two stages in the development of medical knowledge in Tibet, for example, by Desi Sangye Gyatso (1653-1705) , are described according to ancient Indian myths and legends [Desi Sangye Gyatso 2013]. Mythology, by the way, formed the basis not only of the Tibetan medical historiographical tradition, but of the entire early history of Tibet. This is partly due to the key role that Indian Buddhism played in the history of the development of Tibetan culture.

An analysis of information from Tibetan sources about the so-called final stage shows that in time it coincides with the era of the Middle Ages of European history, by analogy with which Tibetan medical historiography clearly traces the periods of early (V-X centuries), developed (XI-XV centuries) and the late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries).

The early period in the history of Tibetan medicine (5th-10th centuries) seems to be chronologically the most controversial. In general, the early period is characterized by the invitation to Tibet of doctors from neighboring countries, the first translations of texts in the field of medicine. Unfortunately, only the titles of these works have survived to this day. During this period, the original Tibetan medical texts were not produced, or at least they did not survive. So, according to Tibetan historiography, the first sprouts of Ayurvedic knowledge began to penetrate into Tibet starting from the reign of the Tibetan kings of the Yarlung dynasty - presumably during the reign of King Lha Totori Nyentsen (5th century) or Namri Songtsen, the father of Songtsen Gampo (r. 617-650) - founder of the Tibetan empire [Desi Sangye Gyatso 2015]. It should be noted that among researchers of the ancient history of Tibet there is no consensus on the date of life of all the kings of the Yarlung dynasty [Kychanov, Melnichenko 2005: 22-28]. However, a number of scientists associate the beginning of the written history of medicine with specific historical facts: the appearance of writing during the reign of Songtsen Gampo and the arrival in 641 of the Chinese princess Wen Cheng, who became the wife of this Tibetan king.

The initial process of familiarizing the ancient Tibetans with the medical traditions of other countries is evidenced, for example, by the invitation to the court of Sontsen Gampo of three doctors: the Indian Bharadhwaja, the Chinese Hengwen Hangde, and the Persian Galeno. Each of them translated into Tibetan the writings of their own medical traditions. Apparently, the Sontsen Gampo, not satisfied with this, issued an order, according to which the three doctors named wrote a new seven-volume work called "Fearless Weapon" and presented it to the king. The work has not been preserved, but it is traditionally believed that this collective work, which combines the medical traditions of the three countries, served as the basis for the further development and dissemination of medical knowledge in Tibet.

There is also an opinion that the doctors invited by Sontsen Gampo were not really historical characters, and their names are identified with the medical traditions they represented. The name Galeno in this interpretation is associated with the name of the famous Greek physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena, which speaks of echoes of Greek medical influence,

reached Tibet at the time royal dynasties UP-K cc. through the Arab conquests of Persia [Vesknit; L 1979].

Active translation activity with the invitation of foreign doctors continued during the time of the subsequent kings of the Yarlung dynasty. The greatest rise in cultural and political life Tibet is characterized by the reign of King Trisong Deutsen (r. 755-797). He, being an adherent of Buddhism, actively contributed to its spread and therefore, along with doctors, he invited famous teachers from neighboring countries. By the decision of Trisong Detsen, the construction of the Buddhist monastery Samye (775-779) began. The opening of this monastery is taken by Tibetan historiography as the initial official recognition of Buddhism as the state religion. At the same time, according to Tibetan sources, the title of lamen (Ya shai) was established, the holders of which, along with the provision of land and the inheritance of the rights of hereditary doctors, were exempted from military duties. At the same time, a “thirteen-point decree” was issued on honoring doctors, reflecting the historical reality of this period, and indicating Trisong Detsen's attitude to medicine. This edict is evidence of an increase social role doctors, their recognition by the state power of Tibet in the VIII century.

After the fall of the Yarlung dynasty in the ninth century. patronage of medical training was taken over by the developing Buddhist monastic centers. According to the tradition generally accepted in Tibetan historiography, the history of Buddhism in Tibet is divided into two periods - the early period of spread (VII century) and the late period of spread (X century). They are based on such "events as the initial spread of Buddhism and its suppression by King Landarma (r. 838-841), as well as a new revival of Buddhism after persecution" [Pubaev 1981: 186]. Tibetan medical historians believe that writings and translations related to early period distribution are treated as the old medical school, or the school of early translations, and works created in the late period of distribution are considered as the new medical school, or the school of late translations.

But at the same time, Tibetan authors consider the traditional periodization of the history of Buddhism inapplicable to the history of medicine. Desi Sangye Gyatso gives the following argument: “Since King Landarma destroyed the main foundation of Buddhist teachings - the monastic discipline of pratimoksha, the term “early and late spread of Buddhism” arose. As for medicine, from the time of King Songtsen Gampo to the present, it has developed without experiencing any period of decline. Therefore, it seems that the use of the term "early and late dissemination" is not necessary [from the point of view of the medical tradition]" [Desi Sangye Gyatso 2015: 54]. Velmang Konchok Gyaltsen (1764-1853), as if explaining this statement of Desi Sangye Gyatso, writes even more specifically: "Landarma, in suppressing the Dharma, did not destroy the healing business, since it was necessary for him" 1991: 240].

If above we touched on the issues of the history of Tibetan medicine in the early Middle Ages (VI-X centuries), relating to the early period of the spread of Buddhism, noted by historians as the period of a single centralized feudal state of Tibet, then the beginning of the next period, or the late period of the spread of Buddhism, is characterized by the disintegration of Tibet into a series of principalities or kingdoms.

In the period of the developed Middle Ages (III-XGU centuries), in the conditions of feudal fragmentation, a key place in the history of the new medical school was occupied by

representatives of Western Tibet. The outstanding representative of Tibetan scientists in the field of medical science of this period was the great translator - lotsawa Rinchen Sanpo (957-1055). It was he who translated the Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita by Vagbhata (4th century), included in the Buddhist canon Tengyur. This Ayurvedic text played a very important role in the development of medicine in Tibet. Modern researchers note the great influence of the "Ashtanga-hridaya-samhita" on the Tibetan medical canon "Chzhud-shi", which appeared over the next century. Many researchers admit that it was by the XII century. The Zhud-shih, codified by Yuthokpa Yonten Gonpo the Younger (1126-1202) and his students, became the main "root text" of the Tibetan medical tradition.

Tibetan Buddhist figures received monastic education in the so-called five major sciences: the religious and philosophical system of Buddhism, grammar, logic, art technology and medicine, as well as in the five minor sciences: poetry, prosody, lexicology, drama and astrology. Creating their original works, Tibetan scientists did not ignore medical science: Sakya Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147-1216), the third hierarch of the Tibetan Buddhist Sakya school, wrote the "Treasury of the King" - about methods of treatment, his nephew the famous Sakya Pandita (1182-1251 ) - “Important aspects of the eight branches of medicine”, and Ranjung Dorje (1284-1339), the third hierarch of the Tibetan Buddhist school Karma Kagyu, belongs to the “Collection of the essence of the eight branches of medicine” and “The ocean of drug names”. And it is not surprising that in the great monasteries of central and southwestern Tibet, special schools for medical training began to be created, such as Shalu (XI century), Sakya-mendong (XII century), and later - Tsurpu (XIV century). During the same period, the famous Tibetan medical schools of Yuthokpa and Dranti were formed.

During the late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries), Tibetan medicine almost completely developed as a medical system. Among the various Tibetan medical schools, two schools stood out most clearly: Jang and Sur, which took shape by the 15th century. as a result of the branching of the commentary tradition of "Chzhud-shih". Their emergence was due to the natural evolution of Tibetan medicine and at the same time marked a fundamentally new stage in the development of medical science, prepared by previous generations of Tibetan doctors.

The line of succession of doctors of the Jang medical school appeared first, which became the leading one in Jang Ngamring, the ancient capital of Tibet (XV century). Here the rules for conducting oral medical examinations were established, and the principles of mnemonics for memorizing "Chzhud-shih" were developed. Approximately half a century later, the Sur school, the second of the two main lines of succession in the Tibetan medical tradition, was formed in the area of ​​Latok Surkar. The Jang school got its name from the founder of the school, Janpa Namgyal Draksan (1395-1475), and the origin of the Sur school is associated with the name of Surkarva Nyamni Dorje (1439-1475). Despite the "difference in age" and the duration of their "separate" existence, information from Tibetan sources allows us to speak about the general nature of their development. There was no obvious desire in the schools to assert the superiority of any of them, there were no special doctrinal discussions between them, representatives of these schools learned from each other.

Between the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually formed a strong trend towards rapprochement of the two schools. Judging by the nature of the medical instructions, the method of instruction of the Nyengyu oral tradition is typical for the Jang school.

(snyan brgyud), transmitted to only one student or a very limited circle, and for the Sur school - the medical cycle of the Yutok-nyintik teachings. But already from Surkarva Lodro Gyalpo (1509-1579?), with his receipt of the instructions of the Jang school, the practice of such an exchange of experience was probably established. It led to a noticeable leveling of the traditions of the transfer of medical knowledge.

By the beginning of the 17th century, during the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682), several key medical centers were operating in the Lhasa region, in Drepung Monastery, Shika Samdup Tse and Lhawang Chok. Here, regular rules for medical examinations were established, and woodcuts of the main medical treatises were cut, incl. and Chud-shi. And by the end of the 17th century, from the foundation in 1696, medical center Chakpori, Desi Sangye Gyatso, at that time the regent who ruled Tibet alone, easily united these schools and began the unification of all Tibetan medical traditions. It should be noted that the Chakpori center functioned as a medical academy in Lhasa until the middle of the 20th century. until the Chinese invasion in 1959.

Other medical schools continued to appear in monastic centers. Under the leadership of the prominent scholar Situ Choikya Junne, schools were founded in eastern Tibet in Derge (end of the 17th century), Pelpung (18th century), etc. Schools appeared in the monasteries Katok, Kumbum and Labran. Some of them developed their own curricula, somewhat different from those adopted in Chakpori, which caused debate and discussion among doctors.

Medical practice in Tibet was not limited to the schools and monastic training centers represented here. Buddhist yogis, masters practicing tantra, mediums, oracles and representatives of the pre-Buddhist Bon tradition were also involved in medical activities.

In conclusion, we note that the early stage of the development of Tibetan medicine was mainly a period of accumulation of medical knowledge through active acquaintance and interaction with various traditions of healing, especially Ayurvedic, where the spread of Buddhism in Tibet played a special role. In the next two periods, the totality of knowledge gained and practically acquired skills served as the basis for the creation of a unique, proper Tibetan Buddhist system of medical knowledge, which has survived to this day and is widely practiced.

Bibliography

Desi Sangye Gyatso 2013. Kokbuk: the history of medical science in Ancient India (translated from Tib. preface, notes, indexes, glossaries by Yu. Zh. Jabon). Ulan-Ude: BSC SB RAS Publishing House. Part I. 238 p.

Desi Sangye Gyatso 2015. Kokbuk: the history of medical science in Tibet (translated from Tib., foreword, note, op., gloss. Yu.Zh. Jabon). Ulan-Ude: BSC SB RAS Publishing House. Part II. 398 p.

Kychanov E.I., Melnichenko B.N. 2005. History of Tibet from ancient times to the present day. M.: Oriental literature. 351 p.

Pubaev R.E. 1981. Pagsam-jeongsan - a monument of Tibetan historiography of the 18th century. Novosibirsk: Science. 307 p.

Beckwith C.I. 1979. The Introduction of Greek Medicine into Tibet in the Seventh and Eighth Century. - Journal of the American Oriental Society. no. 99. P. 297-313.

Dummer T. 1988. Tibetan Medicine and Other Holistic Health-Care Systems. London; New York: Routledge. 307 p.

Finckh E. 1975. Grundlagen tibetischer Heilkunde. Uelzen: Medizinisch Literarische Verlagsgemeinschaft. 107p.

Gyatso J. 2004. The Authority of Empiricism and the Empiricism of Authority: Tibetan Medicine and Religion on the Eve of Modernity. - Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Vol. 24. Iss. 2. P. 83-96.

Kloos S. 2008. The History and Development of Tibetan Medicine in Exile. - The Tibet Journal. Vol. 33. No. 3. Autumn P. 15-49.

Rechung Rinpoche 1973. Tibetan Medicine. Berkeley: University of California Press. 340p.

Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre (ed. by J.I. Cabezon, R.R. Jackson). 1996. Ithaka, New York: Snow Lion Publication. 552p.

Toru Tsenam 2009. Khro ru tshe rnam gyi gsung rtsom thor buphyogs bsgrigs. Bod ljongs mi dmang dpe skrun khang. 305p.

Welmang Konchok Gyaltsen. 1991. Blab rang bkra shis "khyilgyi gdan rabs lha" i rnga chen. Kan su "u mi rigs dpe skrun khang. 577 p.

ZHABON Yumzhana Zhaltsanovna, Cand.Sci. (Hist.), Senior Research Fellow at the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs, Institute of Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies, Siberian branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (6 Sakhjanovoj St, Ulan-Ude, Republic of Buryatia, Russia, 670047; [email protected]);

VANCHIKOVA Tsymzhit Purbuevna, Dr.Sci. (Hist.), Professor, Principal Researcher at the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs, Institute of Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies, Siberian branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (6 Sakhjanovoj St, Ulan-Ude, Republic of Buryatia, Russia, 670047 ; [email protected])

TO THE HISTORY OF TIBETAN MEDICINE: MAIN STAGES OF ITS FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

abstract. The article, basing on former unknown information from Tibetan medical works, analyzes the main stages of the history of formation and development of Tibetan medicine (7th-17th centuries). The main attention is given to the characteristics of the history of the early period. Fundamentally new is the division of the history of Tibetan medicine into the mythological period, the periods of early, developed and late Middle Ages. The authors conclude that each of these periods has its own characteristic features in the development of medical knowledge in Tibet. Keywords: history of medicine, Tibetan medicine, periodization, Tibet, sources

2. Formation of Soviet medicine

The historical events of 1917 brought ruin not only to the political and economic spheres of life. They affected the life of the population, and, of course, general state people's health. At the beginning of the Soviet period, with the coming to power of the Bolsheviks and the establishment of a new regime, a wave of epidemics of cholera, typhus, smallpox and other diseases swept the country. The situation was aggravated by the widespread shortage of qualified personnel, equipment and medical equipment, and medicines. There were very few hospitals, preventive medical institutions. Civil War left a deep mark in history, bringing with it devastation in the industrial activity of the country, agriculture. A wave of hunger swept across the country. In agriculture, there was not only enough seed, but also fuel for agricultural machinery. Communication between settlements was reduced to a minimum, there was not enough water even for cooking and quenching thirst, not to mention other household needs. Cities and countryside literally "overgrown with mud", and this already served as a threat of epidemics. HG Wells, who visited the Union in 1920, was shocked by what he saw compared to what he had seen 6 years earlier. It was a picture of complete collapse, the country that appeared to his eyes was the wreckage of a great empire, a huge shattered monarchy, fallen under the yoke of cruel senseless wars. At that time, the death rate increased 3 times, the birth rate halved.

Only an organized healthcare system could save the country from extinction, help in the fight against diseases and epidemics. Such a system began to actively form in 1918.

To create a developed structure that could effectively serve all segments of the population, it was necessary to combine all types of departmental medicine under a single state control: zemstvo, city, insurance, railway and other forms. Thus, the formation of a unified health care system attracted all more people and was of a "collective nature" - literally recruited from the world by thread. This "collection" of medicine took place in several stages.

The first phase fell on October 26, 1917, when the Medical and Sanitary Department was formed. It was created under the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, headed by M. I. Barsukov. The main task of the department was to unite and involve in the work of all doctors who recognized the new government; it was also necessary to radically change the medical and sanitary business in the country and organize qualified assistance to workers at enterprises and soldiers in the active troops, as well as those in reserve.

Since the reform had to be carried out everywhere in order to cover more area, medical and sanitary departments and medical colleges began to be created locally. The tasks facing the latter were of a public nature, so on January 24, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars signed a decree establishing the Council of Medical Colleges. This council became the highest medical body of the workers' and peasants' government. A. N. Vinokurov became the head of the body, V. M. Bonch-Bruevich (Velichkina) and I. M. Barsukova were appointed his deputies. In order for the people to know about the active work of the Council, on May 15, 1918, the first issue of the News of Soviet Medicine was published under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. It was the first Russian medical public publication, which then appeared regularly. The Council of Medical Colleges saw its main task in fulfilling the following conditions: continuing the widespread organization of medical and sanitary departments, consolidating the initiated reforms regarding the transformation of military medicine, strengthening, developing sanitary affairs and strengthening epidemic control throughout the country.

However, in order to act on the scale of the whole country and objectively monitor the results of the work carried out, it was necessary to hold the All-Russian Congress of Representatives of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Soviets. The congress was held on June 16-19, 1918. It raised not only the organization and work of the People's Commissariat of Health, which were the most important at that time, but also questions of insurance medicine, the question of combating epidemics, questions about the tasks of medicine in the field.

The result of the work of the congress was the adoption of a decision on the creation of the People's Commissariat of Health, which was to become the main body of health and be in charge of all medical and sanitary affairs. On June 26, 1918, a project for the creation of the People's Commissariat of Health was presented. On July 9, the draft was also published for the general public, and on July 11, the Council of People's Commissars signed a decree "On the Establishment of the People's Commissariat of Health." The first collegium of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR was created, in which V. M. Velichkina (Bonch-Bruevich), R. P. Golubkov, E. P. Pervukhin, Z. P. Solovyov, P. G. Dauge were appointed, and the first commissioner of health was appointed N. A. Semashko. Z. N. Solovyov became his first deputy. In July 1936, the People's Commissariat of Health, by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, was renamed the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR. G. N. Kaminsky became its first head.

N. A. Semashko

Nikolai Alexandrovich Semashko (1874–1949) made a huge contribution to the development of not only Soviet, but also world medicine.

Semashko's career did not start with brilliant success: he graduated from Kazan University, after which he worked for 3 years as a zemstvo doctor in the Oryol province, and then in Nizhny Novgorod. The revolution in February 1905 ended for him with arrest, imprisonment for 10 months, and then 10 years of emigration to France, Switzerland and Serbia. In the summer of 1917, at the age of 43, he returned to Moscow with a group of other emigrants. He took part in the medical arrangement of the country from the moment the idea of ​​creating a state healthcare system arose: first he headed the medical and sanitary department of the Moscow Council, and later became the first People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR. He managed the People's Commissariat of Health for 11 years, in the most difficult years for the country, when there was a bloody Civil War, epidemics raged in the Union. He also took part in the development of anti-epidemic programs, seriously stated the need to create a program for the protection of motherhood and childhood and the need to develop Soviet medicine by improving and expanding the network of research institutes. Under him, sanitary-resort business began to develop intensively, the system of higher medical education was transformed.

N. A. Semashko made a huge contribution to the development of hygiene in the USSR, opening in 1922 the Department of Social Hygiene at the Medical Faculty of Moscow State University. He himself was the head of this department for 27 years.

In 1927–1936 the first edition of the Great Medical Encyclopedia was created and published, the initiator of which was N. A. Semashko. From 1926 to 1936 he headed the children's commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

He put a lot of effort into studying the sanitary and hygienic situation after the war. N. A. Semashko became one of the founders and one of the first academicians and members of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. He was director of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences from 1945 to 1949. Since 1945, he held the title of Academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. He also became the founder of the Institute for the Organization of Public Health and the History of Medicine of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, after its creation he led it from 1947 to 1949. This institute bore his name for a long time, later it was renamed the National Research Institute of Public Health of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Semashko, despite the great responsibility that lies on his shoulders, and the large number of positions he held, managed to leave his mark on the development physical education and sports, as he became the first chairman of the organization in charge of this area of ​​medicine, and also headed the board of the All-Union Hygienic Society (1940–1949).

Throughout his life, he wrote scientific works and works, of which there are more than 250. All of them were devoted to theoretical, organizational and practical issues of hygiene and health care in general, which earned him immortal memory among the people.

3. P. Solovyov

Zinovy ​​Petrovich Solovyov (1876–1928), in addition to his high positions in the healthcare sector, is known for the fact that in 1925 he initiated the creation of the Artek All-Union Pioneer Camp for children on the Black Sea coast, which exists to this day. Left behind a lot scientific works, in which he raised questions and actively developed programs to overcome difficulties in the development of medical affairs and higher medical education in the USSR.

G. N. Kaminsky

Grigory Naumovich Kaminsky (1895–1938), before being appointed the first People's Commissar of Health of the USSR, served for 2 years as People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR (1934–1935) and the USSR (1935–1937). He was the organizer of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate. In 1935, based on his developments, a program was adopted to improve medical care and services for the city and rural population. He contributed to the transfer of the chemical and pharmaceutical industry to the department of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR. He left a deep mark in the development of medicine as a science and in medical education, he also became one of the organizers of VNEM in Moscow and Leningrad.

Special thanks to G. N. Kamensky could be rendered for assistance in organizing the first international congresses.

However, his activity in the state field was short-lived, the period of his active work was only 4 years, since on June 25, 1937 he was arrested and shot, after he spoke at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks with a condemning speech against the policy of repression, many of his comrades-in-arms were arrested and shot with him. Later they were all posthumously rehabilitated.

Robert Lanza has managed to ride the tidal wave of discoveries generated by the unraveling of the mysteries of DNA. Historically, at least three major stages can be distinguished in the development of medicine in human society. At the first stage, which lasted tens of thousands of years, superstition, witchcraft and rumors reigned in medicine. Most children died at birth, and life expectancy ranged from 18 to 20 years. During this period, some useful herbs and chemical substances, such as aspirin, but there was no scientific method for finding new drugs and treatments. Unfortunately, any remedies that really helped became closely guarded secrets. To make money, the “doctor” had to cater to wealthy patients, and keep the recipes for his potions and spells in deep secrecy.

During this period, one of the founders of the now famous Mayo Clinic, visiting patients, kept a personal diary. There he frankly wrote that in his black medical case there were only two effective means: saw and morphine. He used the saw to amputate the affected organs, and morphine for pain relief during amputation. These tools worked flawlessly.

Everything else in the black suitcase, the doctor remarked sadly, is snake fat and quackery.

The second stage in the development of medicine began in the 19th century, when the germ theory of diseases appeared and ideas about hygiene were formed. Life expectancy in the United States in 1900 was 49 years. In Europe, tens of thousands of soldiers died on the battlefields of the First World War, and there was a need for real medical science, for real experiments with reproducible results, which were then published in medical journals. European kings watched in horror as their best and smartest subjects perished, and demanded real results from doctors, not empty tricks. Now doctors, instead of catering to wealthy patrons, fought for recognition and fame with articles in respected peer-reviewed journals. Thus, a platform was prepared for the promotion of antibiotics and vaccines, which increased life expectancy to 70 years or more.

The third stage of development is molecular medicine. Today we are witnessing the fusion of medicine and physics, we see how medicine penetrates deep into matter, to atoms, molecules and genes. This historic transition began in the 1940s, when the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, one of the founders of quantum theory, wrote the much-requested book What is Life? He rejected the idea that there is some kind of mysterious spirit, or life force, which is inherent in all living beings and which actually makes them alive. Instead, the scientist reasoned, all life is based on a certain code, and this code is contained in the molecule. Having discovered it, he assumed that he would unravel the mystery of being. Physicist Francis Crick, inspired by Schrödinger's book, joined forces with geneticist James Watson to prove that this fabulous molecule is DNA. In 1953, one of the most important discoveries of all time was made - Watson and Crick revealed the double helix structure of DNA. The length of one DNA strand in untangled form is about two meters. Such a thread is a sequence of 3 billion nitrogenous bases, which are denoted by the letters A, T, C, G (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine) and carry encoded information. Having deciphered the exact sequence of nitrogenous bases in the chain of a DNA molecule, one can read the book of life.

The rapid development of molecular genetics eventually led to the emergence of the Human Genome Project, a milestone in the history of medicine. Shock All Gene Sequencing Program human body cost about $3 billion and included the work of hundreds of scientists around the world. The successful completion of the project in 2003 marked the beginning of a new era in science. Over time, each person will have a personal map of the genome on an electronic medium like a CD-ROM. All approximately 25,000 genes will be recorded in this map this person, and it will become a kind of “instruction for use” for everyone.

Nobel Laureate David Baltimore summarized all of the above in one sentence: "Today's biology is an information science."

The term "medicine" from Latin is translated literally as "medical", "healing". It is the science of the human body in its healthy and pathological condition, as well as methods of diagnosis, treatment, prevention of various diseases. Thus, it cannot be argued that this is an exclusively system of scientific knowledge, since an important component is practical activity.

The history of medicine began with the history of mankind - when a disease appeared, people always sought to find a way to eliminate it. However, it is currently difficult to judge what skills healers had in the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras, as well as in later times - until writing appeared. Therefore, historical conclusions can only be drawn on the basis of treatises found by archaeologists. In particular, of great value is the code of laws of Hammurabi, which mentions the rules for the work of doctors, as well as the observations of Herodotus, who describes medical activity in Babylonia.

Initially, priests were healers, so healing was considered part of the religion. Pathological processes, inexplicable by the knowledge available at that time, were associated with the punishment of the gods, therefore, diseases were often treated only by the expulsion of demons and similar rituals. But already in Ancient Greece attempts were made to study the human body, for example, Hippocrates made a great contribution to medical science, in addition, it was there that the first educational institutions for doctors were opened.

During the Middle Ages, scientists continued the ancient tradition, but also made a significant contribution to the development of medicine. Thus, the works of Avicenna, Rhazes and other physicians became the foundation of modern science. Later, the authorities of antiquity were called into question, for example, by the experiments of Francis Bacon. This was the impetus for the development of such disciplines as anatomy and physiology. A more accurate study of the body and its work has made it possible to better understand the causes and mechanisms of many diseases. Most of the knowledge was obtained by dissecting corpses and studying the structural features of internal organs.

Further discoveries in the field of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases were associated with the general scientific and technological progress. In particular, in the 19th century, thanks to the invention of the microscope, it became possible to study cells and their pathologies. The emergence of such a science as genetics played a revolutionary role.

To date, doctors have in their arsenal not only thousands of years of experience and the latest developments, but also modern equipment, effective drugs, without which neither accurate diagnosis nor effective therapy can be imagined. However, despite such progress, many questions are still open, scientists have yet to answer them.