Indicate the time of the appearance of the Russian language. The history of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Russia

reflections.

A bit of subjective history.

Have you ever wondered about the origin of our Great and Mighty? Where does our language come from? Having attended Dmitry Petrov's lecture “On the Origin of Languages” in the summer, I never received an answer to my question. main question, although the lecture was undoubtedly very interesting.

Many adhere to the views of the so-called "Norman theory" that it is the people-tribe of Rus that takes its roots from Scandinavia (Varangians). If you look at the map and realize the endless expanses of our homeland, then this theory turns out to be too narrow. I'm sure we have more in Russia than we imagine.

The Scandinavian influence on Russia was indeed significant, but only in one of its geographical parts. True, it cannot be denied that all the same, the first legitimate power was still behind the Varangians (Rurik).

My personal subjective opinion: The Scandinavian tribes assimilated on the territory of Russia with the tribes that lived there at that time

Most likely, the Rus are not Slavs and not Scandinavians, but a kind of mix. Varyago-Russian ethnic community.

There were many tribes. That is, the tribe "Rus", and the territory "Rus" was the territory present Ukraine(Kievan Rus), and the Slavs apparently lived on Novgorod Land.

In general, Novgorodians for a long time did not consider themselves Russians at all, the word Rus belongs to their territory. In Novgorod birch bark letters, as well as in chronicles, for some time there are stories that such and such a bishop went to Russia from Novgorod in such and such a year, that is, he went south, to Kyiv or Chernigov. - Andrei Zaliznyak (outstanding linguist, academic).

I always had the impression that our country has always been some kind of separate state, in comparison with the Western world, and its economic and political development began much earlier than Rurik came to reign. But intuitively, I feel that the real Russia is not in Moscow, but much further from it, somewhere there, to Novgorod and beyond. And next to Moscow, the influence of Western culture is really strong, which often determines the mentality. We are close. In general, many Russian people living to the north have a harsh mentality. Kind, good, but harsh. Hence all the stereotypes about bears and Siberia and vodka. Not in an empty place. Cold. And there already.

About language.

Slavic branches grow out of the powerful trunk of the Indo-European family, which covers most of the languages ​​​​of Europe and India. The Indian and Iranian group is represented in the East. In Europe, languages ​​arise from Latin: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian. Greece and Greek is represented first by Ancient Greek and now by Modern Greek. German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, English came to us from Germany. The Baltic combines the Baltic languages ​​and Slavic.

The Baltic branch includes Latvian, Lithuanian and now extinct Old Prussian. And the Slavs were divided into 3 groups of South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic languages.

• South Slavic is Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Macedonian;
• West Slavic is Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian.
• And the East Slavic languages ​​​​(OURS) are Russian (otherwise Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian.

By the divine coming of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, the language in Russia acquired an alphabet and a commonality. After all, before the tribes spoke their dialects. Cyril and Methodius came from Byzantium, therefore, they brought us part of the Greek. Did shades of Greek influence the Russians? Maybe.

Church Slavonic appeared. The Language of Worship. Elite language. Ordinary people did not speak it.

And Old Russian, which was used as a folk language.

In comparison with Church Slavonic, in contrast to it.

The Russian language was perceived as a simple language, not just neutral, but even a little pejorative. “Russify” means to sink, stop looking after yourself. Not allowed to express spiritual content.

Russian language and Sanskrit.

Sanskrit is the ancient literary language of India. It is considered the same language of the elite as Latin, as Church Slavonic, but only in India. sacred language. It has written a huge number of religious texts and high literature.

Slavic and Sanskrit have a lot in common. Probably because Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family and have a common root. I am sure that the mutual influence of India and Russia was not limited to this. Russia is still too big.

A close connection can be traced between words such as " jnana ' and 'knowledge', ' vidya "and" knowledge "," dwara ' and 'door', ' mrityu ' and 'death', ' shveta ' and 'light', ' jiva ' and 'live', isn't it?

A great connoisseur of languages, dialects, professor and linguist Durgo Shastri, came to Moscow half a century ago. He did not speak Russian. A week later, the professor refuses an interpreter, saying that he began to understand the Russians, because they speak corrupted Sanskrit. There are also such cases.

When I was in Moscow, the hotel gave me the keys to room 234 and said "dwesti tridtsat chetire". At a loss, I couldn't figure out if I was standing in front of a nice girl in Moscow, or if I was in Benares or Ujjain during our classical period some 2,000 years ago. Sanskrit 234 would be "dwsshata tridasha chatwari". Is there a greater similarity somewhere? it is unlikely that there will be two more different languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat have preserved the ancient heritage - such a close pronunciation - to the present day.

I happened to visit the village of Kachalovo, about 25 km from Moscow, and was invited to dinner with a Russian peasant family. The elderly woman introduced the young couple to me, saying in Russian: "On my seen i ona moya snokha."

How I wish that Panini, (the great Indian grammarian, who lived about 2600 years ago), could be here with me and hear the language of his time, so wonderfully preserved with all the smallest subtleties! - Durga Prasad Shastri

Of course, the influence on the modern Russian language is simply enormous, a huge number of words have already been borrowed from those countries with which we have managed to communicate closely over all periods of history.

To be honest, in modern Russian there are traces of influences from almost all four corners of the world.

BORROWING.

Sail from the Greek "Farus".

During the expansion of the Goths- König, king - Prince.

Regiment from the German "Volk”.

Kaufenfrom German“ Buy”.

Words of Turkic origin for example, words like shoe, boar, cap, brick, product, lumber room, Cossack, cauldron, mound.

Bazaar, Barn, Attic - words of Turkish origin.

Watermelon. In Persian it is "Harbuza". In Persian it is watermelon, where char it's 'donkey', and buza- "cucumber'. Together it turns out “donkey cucumber”, and, by the way, it means there not a watermelon, but a melon.

From the Swedes - Herring, herring. By the way, the word “Finns” also came to us from the Swedes. The Finns themselves call themselves "Suomi".

The words cruiser,skipper, flag- Dutch. There are dozens of such words. Appeared during the reign of Peter the Great.

See how strongly neighboring languages ​​influence word formation. The Russian language has communicated with a huge number of languages, at least two dozen. And if we count isolated cases, then there will be a dozen more with long-distance connections.

A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the largest languages ​​in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Russian is one of the official and working languages ​​of the UN. The number of Russian speakers is about 180 million people. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages ​​show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages ​​form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.
The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language

The history of the origin of the Russian language goes back to ancient times. Approximately in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14-16 centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Principality of Moldavia.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (13-15 centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the 13-14 centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language also gradually disintegrated. 3 centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the 14-15 centuries. on the basis of these associations, closely related, but independent East Slavic languages ​​are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The history of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Russia

The Russian language of the era of Moscow Russia (14-17 centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod, and South Great Russian in the south from this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in live speech, the final restructuring of the categories of time takes place (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with "-l"), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six bases is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 17th century national ties arise, the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In the 18th and early 19th centuries secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the 2nd half of the 18th century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language.

In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by Russian from German language, in the 19th century. - from French, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from of English language(in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, penetration foreign words should be reasonably limited.
On the development of the Russian language

Starting from the middle of the 20th century. the study of the Russian language is expanding all over the world. Information for the mid-1970s: Russian is taught in 87 states: in 1648 universities; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. The International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was founded in 1967; in 1974 - Institute of the Russian Language. A. S. Pushkin.

Russian, with the fifth largest number of speakers (after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish), is one of the world's largest languages ​​and the most widely spoken language in Europe, both geographically and in terms of the number of native speakers. Russian has the status of an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Gagauzia and the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (Moldova), Crimea (Ukraine), and is also partially recognized in the Republic of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

The Russian language is one of the official languages ​​of world (WHO, IAEA, UN, UNESCO) and regional international (BRIC, EurAsEC, CSTO, CIS, SCO) organizations. Russian is spoken in the CIS countries, in Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Israel, Mongolia, Finland, Svalbard, in Eastern Europe, in Germany, France, in the cities of the USA, Canada, China, Australia. Until 1991, the Russian language was the language of interethnic communication in the USSR, de facto performing the functions of the state language. It continues to be used in all countries formerly part of the USSR.

Now Russian is native to 130 million citizens Russian Federation, 26.4 million residents of the CIS and Baltic republics and almost 7.4 million residents of non-CIS countries (primarily Germany and other European countries, as well as the USA and Israel). The closest relatives of the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian, together they form a subgroup of Oriental languages ​​that are part of Slavic group Indo-European language family.

At different periods, the Russian language borrowed words from Indo-European: English, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, German, Dutch, Portuguese, French, as well as from Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Scandinavian languages. Among the non-Indo-European languages: from Arabic, Georgian, Hebrew, Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, as well as from Austro-Asiatic, Austronesian, Mongolian, Paleo-Asiatic, Turkic, Uralic, languages ​​of America and even from the languages ​​of Africa.

History of the Russian language

The pre-literate culture of Russia existed in the prehistoric and protohistorical periods. Due to the fact that the Slavs occupied the East European Plain - the crossroads of ancient cultures: ancient Greek (brought here by the Ionians), Scythian and Sarmatian - in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. the language was a complex and motley group of dialects of different tribes: Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Turkish-Turkic (Huns, Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars), Finnish. The pre-Christian Slavic pantheon testifies to the mixed nature of the language of that period - it was made up of gods whose names were taken from different languages: Dazhbog, Mokosh, Perun, Simargla, Stribog, Khors).

At that time, the language had three ethnolinguistic varieties, corresponding to three language groups:

• South Russian (Buzhans, Drevlyans, glades, northerners, Tivertsy, streets);
• North Russian (Krivichi - Polotsk, Smolensk, Pskov; Slovene - Novgorod);
• Eastern or Central Russian (Vyatichi, Dregovichi, Kuryans, Luchians, Radimichi, Semichi); this group clearly differed from the rest in the features of the phonetic and grammatical structure of dialects.

The beginning of the Old Russian literary language is considered to be the period of the formation of the Kyiv state - the XI century. Slavic language material, through high Greek literature and culture, contributed to the emergence of writing.

Although Russia was under the influence of Orthodoxy, Byzantium did not oppose the assimilation of the wealth of Western culture by the Slavs through the Slavic literary language. The simple use of the Greek alphabet could not convey all the features of the Slavic language. The Slavic alphabet was created by the Greek missionary and philologist Cyril.

The Slavic literary language, rapidly developing, was on a par with Greek, Latin and Hebrew. It became the most important factor that united all the Slavs in the 9th-11th centuries. It was written and preached in Velegrad, Kyiv, Novgorod, Ohrid, Preslav, Sazava, in the Czech Republic and in the Balkans.

Such literary monuments were created as Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", the Ostromir Gospel, Svyatoslav's Izbornik and, of course, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

The era of feudalism, the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Polish-Lithuanian conquests led in the XIII-XIV centuries to the disunity of political and economic life and the division of the language into Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

In the 16th century, grammatical normalization of the Moscow written language was carried out in Muscovite Russia. A feature of the syntax of that time was the predominance of the composing connection. Simple sentences short, subject-verbal, frequent conjunctions yes, a, and. An example of the language of that era is Domostroy, written using everyday vocabulary, folk sayings.

There was a change in the category of time (the form ending in -l replaced the obsolete aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect), the dual number was lost, the declension of nouns acquired a modern look.

The basis of the Russian literary language was the Moscow speech with characteristic features: akanye; reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant g; endings -ovo, -evo in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending -t in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tenses; forms of pronouns me , you , myself .

The beginning of book printing in the 16th century became one of the most significant enterprises that contributed to the formation of the literary language of the Muscovite state. In the 17th-18th centuries, Southwestern Russia turned out to be a kind of intermediary between Muscovite Russia and Western Europe. The Polish language has become a supplier of European scientific, legal, administrative, technical and secular terms.

The political and technical reconstruction of the state of the Petrine era left its mark on speech. During this period, the Russian literary language was liberated from the ideological guardianship of the Church. In 1708, the alphabet was reformed - it became close to the samples of European books.

The second half of the 18th century passed under the sign of gallomania - French became the official language of the court and aristocratic circles and noble salons. The process of Europeanization of Russian society intensified. The new foundations of the norms of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. He united all varieties of Russian speech: command language, lively oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognized the forms of the Russian language as the basis of literature. Lomonosov established a system of three styles of literature: simple, medium, high style.

Further, the creators and reformers of the great Russian language were representatives of literature of various genres and trends: G. R. Derzhavin, I. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin. They discovered in literature new means of expression and new treasures of the living word, expanded the circle of meanings of the old words.

They were replaced by V. V. Kapnist, N. M. Karamzin, N. I. Novikov. Interestingly, the language of N. M. Karamzin is comparable in quality and style to the language in which Cicero, Horace and Tacitus wrote.

The wave of the democratic movement did not disregard the Russian language, which, according to representatives of the progressive intelligentsia, should have become accessible to the masses.

A. S. Pushkin brilliantly played the role of a folk poet and resolved the issue of a national norm for the Russian language, which since the time of A. S. Pushkin has been included as an equal member in the family of Western European languages. Rejecting stylistic restrictions, combining Europeanisms and significant forms of folk speech, the poet created a vivid picture of the Russian soul, the Slavic world, using all the richness and depth of the colors of the Russian language.

The impulse of A. S. Pushkin was supported and continued by M. Yu. Lermontov and N. V. Gogol.

The Russian language of the mid-19th - early 20th century had four general development trends:

1. limitation of the Slavic-Russian tradition within the circle of the literary norm;
2. convergence of the literary language with live oral speech;
3. expansion of the literary use of words and phrases from various professional dialects and jargons;
4. redistribution of functions and influence of different genres, development of the genre of the realistic novel (I. A. Goncharov, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev), short story (A. P. Chekhov); the predominance of socio-political, philosophical issues.

The dictionary of the Russian literary language has been enriched with many abstract concepts and expressions in accordance with the growth of public self-awareness.

Under the influence of the socio-political life of Russia, socio-political terms, slogans, aphorisms, and international vocabulary were spread and strengthened.

The new socialist culture has changed the Russian language in the field of word formation, vocabulary and phraseology. There was an active development of special-technical languages.

The standardization of oral speech in the 20th century was facilitated by the spread of the media, the introduction of universal education, and large-scale interregional migration of the population.

The process of globalization at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century enriched the Russian language with a huge number of borrowings (mainly from English) in professional, technical vocabulary, the language of Internet communication, politics, the media, medicine - in almost all areas of modern society.

Changing, the Russian language remains one of the most widespread and actively developing languages ​​in the world. Interest in Russian culture is inextricably linked with interest in the Russian language, the number of people wishing to study it is growing every year. The Russian language is taught in 87 states - the number of students in 1648 universities exceeds 18 million people.

In 1967, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was established. In 1974, the Pushkin Institute of the Russian Language was founded.

Language features

The structure of the modern Russian language has a number of features that distinguish it from other languages ​​of the world. The Russian language is inflectional, that is, there are inflections in it. Inflection - part of the word (ending), expressing grammatical meaning in inflection (declension, conjugation). It is a synthetic language: both lexical and grammatical meanings are combined in the word.

In Russian, the normal forms are: for nouns - the nominative singular, for adjectives - the nominative singular masculine, for verbs, participles and gerunds - the verb in the infinitive.

10 main parts of speech are standardly distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection. As separate parts of speech, words of the category of state (as a group of adverbs), participles and gerunds (as special forms verb), onomatopoeia (considered together with interjections), modal words (as introductory elements in a sentence).

Parts of speech are divided into two groups: independent and auxiliary. Independent parts of speech name objects, qualities and properties, quantity, state, action or indicate them (noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, word of the state category). Service parts of speech express grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words (preposition, conjunction, particle).

The main principle of Russian orthography, most often called phonomorphological in linguistics, involves the literal transmission of significant parts of the word - morphemes (roots, prefixes, suffixes), and the morpheme is written the same way, regardless of positional phonetic changes.

Russian phonetic system consists of 43 phonemes. These are 6 vowels: [a], [e], [i], [s], [o], [y]; 37 consonants: [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], [s], [s" ], [j], [k], [k "], [l], [l"], [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [n], [n"] , [p], [p "], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], [w], [u], [w ":].

In Russian, as in most languages, phonemes are not presented in speech in their pure form, but in the form of allophones (variants). Being in a strong position, the phoneme has its main variant; for vowels, this is the position under stress; for consonants, it is before a vowel or before a sonorous sound.

According to the rules of the Russian language, voiceless phonemes are voiced before voiced ones, voiced ones are deafened before voiceless ones. In addition, only voiceless consonants can occur at the end of words, since the end of a word is considered a weak position. The most variable phoneme is o. As such, it occurs only in a strong position (under stress). In all other cases, it is reduced. In the process of speech, there is an alternation of sounds, this is a very common feature of the Russian language for both vowels and consonants.

The article was prepared in the language "Prima Vista"

See also:

Sources

1. Vinogradov, V. V. The main stages of the history of the Russian language / V. V. Vinogradov // History of the Russian literary language: fav. tr. M., 1978. S. 10-64.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org
3. www.divelang.ru
4. www.gramma.ru
5. www.krugosvet.ru
6. www.polit.ru
7. www.traktat.com
8. http://gramoty.ru/

There are three periods in the history of the Russian language: 1) 6th-7th - 14th centuries; 2) 15th - 17th centuries; 3) 18 - 21 centuries.

1) Early period The history of the Russian language begins after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the separation of the Common East Slavic language - the ancestor of the three East Slavic languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Common East Slavic language, which is also called Old Russian, existed until the 14th century, that is, before it began to be divided into three independent East Slavic languages. Since that time, one can speak of Russian proper, or of the Great Russian language, which differs not only from the languages ​​of the southern and western Slavs, but also from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​closest to it. The Great Russian language also went through a long path of development - from the language of the Great Russian people to modern Russian national language- the language of the Russian nation. The history of the Russian language is the history of the Old Russian language, the language of the Great Russian people and the language of the Russian nation; The structure of the modern Russian language has developed from elements dating back to different eras of its development.

Borkowski identifies three periods in the history of language development:

1) the Old Russian period is the same as the source of all three modern East Slavic languages ​​(from ancient times to the 14th century);

2) the Old Russian period (15-17 centuries);

3) new, modern Russian language (since the 18th century).

The main border between different types literary language - pre-national and national period. For the Russian language, this is the border between the Middle Ages and modern times - the middle - the second half of the 17th century. hallmark pre-national period is that another language can act as a literary language, in this case Church Slavonic, according to Shakhmatov, Tolstoy. During the national period, the literary language changes its base: it focuses on dialectal speech, and is formed on a national basis. During this period, the oral form of the literary language begins to form.

Vostokov, Karamzin distinguish three periods: ancient (10-13 centuries), middle (14-18 centuries), new (from the end of the 18th century). These frames coincide with the chronology of historical changes.

Separation of the Eastern Slavs from the common Slavic unity (approximately in the 6th-7th centuries) linguistically, it was accompanied by the development of such features that were inherent in all Eastern Slavs and distinguished them from the southern and western Slavs. These include the following phonetic features: the presence of ch, zh in place of the ancient tj, dj: candle, boundary; full-vowel combinations oro, ere, olo in place of the ancient or, ol, er, el: beard, coast; the presence of o at the beginning of the word with je in other Slavic languages: lake, deer, autumn, one.

In strengthening the unity of the Old Russian language, the development Kyiv Koine(common colloquial language), it combined features of the north (horse, veksha, istba) and primordially southern (for example, vol, brehati, lepy). In the Old Kievan Koine, sharp dialectal features are leveled, as a result of which it could become a language that satisfies the needs of Kyiv in its relations with all of Russia, which strengthened the unity of the Russian people. The question of the development of the Old Russian language in the Kievan era is connected with the question of the origin of writing and the beginning of the development of the Russian literary language. 907 - an agreement between the Russians and the Greeks, preserved in later lists. Consequently, the writing of the Eastern Slavs originated long before the baptism of Russia and the ancient Russian letter was alphabetic.

During this period, the literary language also developed, reflected in the monuments of various genres. The first written monuments of the Old Russian language date back to the 11th century; The oldest inscription on a vessel found during excavations of the Gnezdovsky mounds near Smolensk dates back to the beginning of the 10th century.

In the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, church books written in Old Church Slavonic began to arrive in Russia from Bulgaria. This contributed to the spread of writing. The books were copied by Russian scribes, who mastered the features of the Old Slavonic language. But Art.-Cl. language absorbs local linguistic features. So in the 11-12 centuries, local varieties of the old-sl. language; the totality of these editions is called the Church Slavonic language. It was the common literary language of the Slavs throughout the medieval period. It was used to write texts on church topics, canonical and similar. During this period, secular genres of writing also existed - records and comments on real historical events, travel descriptions, texts of laws and private correspondence. The language of this writing is the Old Russian language, filled with words and forms of living East Slavic speech, it reflected the Koine.

The works of secular writing written in the Old Russian language are divided into two groups: 1) chronicle stories and artistic and narrative literature: the works of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - early 12th centuries), "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (1st quarter of the 13th century), etc. .; 2) monuments of a business nature and private correspondence (Birch bark letters).

The vast territory of Kievan Rus, with a diverse population in terms of economic, ethnic, and cultural characteristics, early began to show tendencies towards disintegration. By the middle of the 12th century, and especially in its second half, the process of weakening Kyiv as a common center and the process of strengthening new, local centers led to the loss of Kyiv's leading role. Life began to concentrate around other centers in the north, northeast and northwest (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc.). Feudal fragmentation is intensifying, which leads to a deepening of dialect differences in the Old Russian language. In the written monuments of the 12th - early 13th centuries. a number of dialects of the Old Russian language are reflected. It was a period when the Eastern Slavs were going through a common process for all Slavs. loss of reduced, which entailed consequences that are different for the south and for the rest of the territory of the Old Russian language. According to the fate of the primordial e and o, which received lengthening in the position before the lost b and b and later diphthongization, according to the fate of combinations of smooth c b and b between consonants and other phenomena, the south and southwest of Ancient Russia turned out to be opposed to the north and northeast. However, there were also dialectal differences.

2) The beginning of the second period is the collapse of the single East Slavic language and the emergence of the language of the Great Russian people.

Strengthening the feudal fragmentation of Russia, further separation of northeastern Russia from western and southwestern during the Mongol-Tatar yoke, as well as as a result of the processes of development of the western and southern lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and later Poland), economic growth and political strengthening northeastern Russia leads to the fact that in the 14-16 centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are formed.

North-Eastern (Suzdal) Russia becomes the center of the gathering of Russian lands and the struggle against the Golden Horde. Beginning in the 14th century rise of Moscow originally a small city of Suzdal Rus, which later turned into the political, economic and cultural center of the state. Under the rule of Prince M., the lands located to the north, south and west of Moscow are collected. Somewhat earlier in the west, the rise of the Principality of Lithuania begins. Lithuanian princes seized Western Russia in the 13th century, in the 13th-14th centuries. making forays into the southwest. In the 14th century, the Galicia-Volyn lands and Kyiv were part of the Lithuanian principality. In the 14th-15th centuries. On the territory of the Lithuanian Principality, on the basis of Old Russian dialects, the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are formed. The formation here of two, and not one, language is explained by the comparative disunity of the various parts of this state formation, as well as by the fact that different lands at different times were part of it.

Evidence of the formation of the Great Russian nationality and its language was the emergence throughout the territory of the settlement of the nationality of linguistic neoplasms that were not characteristic of the languages ​​of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. A change in weak b and b in combination with the previous smooth one in o and e, the development of ûy, yy in oh, her. In the field of morphology, there is a loss of the vocative form, the replacement of whistling with posterior lingual in the forms of declension (legE instead of nozE), the development of plural forms. I.p. on –a (shores, forests), the formation of imperative mood forms in –ite instead of –Ete, the emergence of imperative mood forms with r, x, k in back-lingual verbs (help instead of help).

Structurally, the language of the Great Russian people was already close to the S.R.Y.: there was a change of e into o, a functional unification of u, s with their phonetic difference. A system of hard-soft and voiced-deaf consonants was established, the old system of past tenses of the verb was lost, there was a unification of declension types, etc.

The core of this territory was dialectally unified, but the gradual expansion of the emerging state, the annexation of new territories was accompanied by an increase in dialect diversity, because. in the annexed territories there were both S.-E.-R. and S.-E.-R. dialects. Both become dialects of the Great Russian language, with the leading role played by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, which included the Moscow dialect. Moscow, which became a political and cultural center from the 2nd quarter of the 14th century, played a special role in the unification of the norms of the Russian language. Around the Moscow Principality, a number of other principalities united, and in the 15th century a vast state, Muscovite Russia, was created. In the 16th century, the norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, which reflected the features of the northern and southern. The colloquial speech of Moscow was reflected in the business documents of the Moscow orders, and the language of these orders influenced the Old Russian literary language, which was reflected in the language of many works of the 15th-17th centuries. In the literary language of the Muscovite state, the book and written traditions of Kievan Rus continue to develop. At the same time, structural changes separating it from the written language are increasing in the Russian spoken language. The Great Russian language is influenced by extralinguistic factors. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo destroys the age-old yoke on Russian soil. The Ottoman Empire captures the capital of Byzantium in 1453 and establishes dominance in the Balkans. Figures of the South Slavic and Byzantine cultures come to Moscow Russia. By the 14th - early 15th centuries. editing of Slavic church books under the guidance of Metropolitan Cyprian is carried out to bring them into their original form, corresponding to the originals. This was the "second South Slavic influence". Russian writing approaches the Slavic.

In the book-Slavic type of the literary language, archaic spellings based on the South Slavic spelling norm are becoming widespread. A special rhetorical manner of expression arises, saturated with metaphors - “ weaving words.” This complex of phenomena is called the second South Slavic influence. The folk-literary type of language was not subjected to it. During this period, the functions business language are expanding. New genres of business writing are emerging: court records, article lists of Russian ambassadors, Domostroy, Stoglav, etc. The spelling practice and word usage of the business language influenced the formation of the norms of the literary language. In the second half of the 16th century, book printing began in the Muscovite state.. The first printed book was The Apostle (1564). In 1566 The Clockworker was published. Church books of grammar, dictionaries, primers necessary for education and enlightenment are printed. The first printed educational books were Primer (1574), Slovenska Grammar by Lavrenty Zizaniy (1576), Slovene Grammar by Melety Smotrytsky (1618).

3) In the 17th century, the Russian nation was formed. During this period, the ratio of the national language and dialects changes. The development of new dialect features stops, the old ones remain stable. From the middle of the 17th century, a new period in the history of the Russian literary language begins - the national one. Dialects begin to level out.

The development of economic and political ties of Muscovite Rus, the growth of Moscow's authority, the spread of Moscow orders contributed to the growth of the influence of Moscow's oral speech on the territory of Russia, the dialect of Moscow formed the basis of the national language. The formation of a new literary language was facilitated by the widespread distribution of literature in the democratic strata of society, the language of which was formed on the basis of oral and business speech.

In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed, the Cyrillic alphabet was used for confessional purposes. In the literary language of the late 17th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. closely intertwined and interact Book Slavonic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and turns of speech of a folk-colloquial and business nature and Western European borrowings. The vocabulary of the language becomes more diverse, but stylistically disordered. There is a need to normalize the literary language. The first attempts to describe the norms of the literary language were made by A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, V. E. Atoturov.

The leading role in the transformation of the Russian literary language in the description of its norms belongs to Lomonosov. He is the founder of the science of the Russian language, laid the foundation for the descriptive and comparative historical study of the Russian language, and characterized the subject of linguistics as a science. In "Letters on the Rules of Russian Poetry", "Rhetoric", "Russian Grammar", "Foreword on the Usefulness of Church Books and the Russian Language", he described the norms of the Russian literary language at all levels of the language system, showed ways historical development, created the doctrine of the three styles.

He connected the theory of three styles with the national originality of the historical development of the Russian literary language, which consisted in the long-term interaction and mutual influence of two elements: book-Slavic and Russian folk. The stylistic theory based the norm on those words, turns of speech, grammatical forms that were stylistically neutral, limited the use of Slavicisms and borrowings, and allowed the use of vernacular in literary speech.

In the development of the language, the role of individual author's styles gradually increases and becomes decisive. The greatest influence on the process of development of the Russian literary language of this period was exerted by the work of G. R. Derzhavin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin. Their works are characterized by an orientation towards live speech use. Moreover, the use of colloquial elements was combined with the stylistically purposeful use of Slavism. A major role in the normalization of the Russian literary language of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. played dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy".

In the early 90s. In the 18th century, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and Karamzin’s stories appear. They cultivated the language of description, which was called the Russian syllable. It was based on the principle of convergence of the literary language with the spoken language, the rejection of the abstract schematism of the literature of classicism, the interest in inner world person. Karamzin set a goal to form a language accessible to all: for books and for society, in order to write as they say and speak as they write. The downside was that he focused on the language of high society, included a large number of gallicisms, which were absent in general use.

The writers of the early 19th century took a significant step towards bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, in updating the norms of the new literary language. By the 19th century, the genre and style of works of literature were no longer determined by the rigid attachment of words, grammatical forms and constructions. The role of a creative linguistic personality has increased, the concept of a true linguistic taste in an individual author's style has arisen.

The first third of the 19th century is Pushkin period. In his work, the formation of the national Russian literary language is completed. In the language of his works, the main elements of Russian writing and oral speech came into balance. He found such ways of merging the three linguistic elements - Slavic, colloquial and Western European elements, which influenced the development of the norms of the national Russian literary language. This language has basically survived to this day. From this period begins the era of the new Russian literary language. In the work of Pushkin, uniform, national norms were developed and consolidated, which linked together the oral and written varieties of the Russian literary language. The creation of unified national norms concerned not only the lexical and grammatical structure, but also systemic and functional styles. Having completely destroyed the system of three styles, he created a variety of styles, stylistic contexts, welded together by theme and content, opened up the possibility of their endless, individual artistic variation. All subsequent development of the Russian literary language was a deepening and improvement of the norms laid down in this era. In the development of the Russian literary language, the formation of its norms, the language practice of the largest Russian writers of the 19th - early 20th centuries (Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky, etc.) played an important role. With Pushkin, the system of functional speech styles was finally established in the Russian literary language, and then improved. In the second half of the 19th century, a significant development of the journalistic style was noted. It begins to influence the development fiction. Scientific-philosophical, socio-political terminology appears in the literary language. Along with this, the literary language incorporates vocabulary and phraseology from territorial dialects, urban vernacular and socio-professional jargons.

After 1917, there is a significant change in the language and its norms. The social base of native speakers is changing. Moscow, as a carrier of the capital's Koine, acquires the character of a multinational city, under the influence of these factors, the norms of the language begin to change rapidly. The development of public education, publishing, the interest of the broad masses in literature and journalism, the emergence of radio, etc. led to the fact that the functions of the literary language became more complex and expanded. New conditions for the relationship between literary and non-literary language arose. There are changes in the expressive coloring of some words (master, master). The language of the Communist Party and its leaders has an impact on the literary one (for example, dizziness from success, to catch up and overtake). Extralinguistic factors influence the formation of new words and expressions (council, five-year plan, collective farm, sabotage). Enriched special technical language in connection with advances in science and technology, etc.

In Soviet times, academic grammars, normative dictionaries, books on the culture of speech, and magazines played an important role.

In the 20th century, the vocabulary of the Russian literary language was significantly enriched. In particular, the development of science and technology contributed to the replenishment of the literary language with special terminological vocabulary, some shifts occurred in word formation, grammatical structure, and stylistic means were enriched.

A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world, the fifth largest in terms of the total number of speakers. Moreover, it is the most widely spoken Slavic language in Europe. According to the classification, it belongs to the East Slavic subgroup of the Indo-European family of languages.

In the prehistoric period, the language of the Slavs was a complex group of dialects of different tribes. At the same time, the Old Russian language was divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: South Russian, North Russian and Central Russian (East Russian).

The origin of the Old Russian literary language dates back to the 11th century AD, that is, to the period of the formation of Kievan Rus. Greek culture had a certain influence on the formation of writing. However, the use of the Greek alphabet could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, so the Byzantine emperor Michael III ordered the creation of a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language.

This process contributed to the simplified translation of Greek religious texts into Slavonic. As a rule, the creation of the Russian literary language is associated with the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius. The rapid spread of writing and the development of the language in Ancient Russia led to the fact that the Slavic language was on a par with the leading languages ​​​​of the era.

The language became the main factor in the unification of the Slavic peoples from the 9th to the 11th century. One of the outstanding literary monuments of that period is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The author of the epic has not been identified.

In the period from the 13th to the 14th centuries, due to feudal fragmentation, the increased influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and frequent raids by the Polish-Lithuanian troops, changes occurred in the development of the Russian language. Since then, it has been divided into three groups: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

With the formation of Muscovite Rus, some reforms took place in written speech. The sentences became short, with an abundance of everyday vocabulary and folk sayings. A vivid example of this language was the work "Domostroy", printed in the middle of the 16th century. Printing has played a significant role in the development of the literary language.

In the 17th century, the Polish language became the supplier of scientific, technical, legal and other terms in Europe. So, gradually there was a modernization of the Russian language. At the beginning of the 18th century, the alphabet underwent reforms and became closer to the European model. The Russian literary language henceforth existed independently of church ideology.

In the second half of the 18th century, the influence of the French language increased in Europe, and along with this, the Europeanization of Russian society also intensified. Around the same period, M. V. Lomonosov introduced new norms of the literary language, establishing a system of styles and combining all varieties of the Russian language (order, oral speech, regional variations).

Other writers who influenced the formation of the Russian language in the 18th - 19th centuries were Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Karamzin, Gogol, Lermontov and, of course, Pushkin. It was A. S. Pushkin who was able to show all the richness and beauty of the Russian language to the fullest, freeing it from stylistic restrictions.

In the 20th century, under the influence of the social and political life of Russia, the Russian language was enriched with many new words and expressions. In many ways, the development of these lexical forms was facilitated by the media and Internet communications.