Variation of language norms. The concept of speech error

And accent rules. Lexical and phraseological norms

Plan

1. The concept of a language norm, its features.

2. Variants of norms.

3. Degrees of normativity of language units.

4. Types of norms.

5. Norms of oral speech.

5.1. orthoepic norms.

5.2. Accent rules.

6. Norms of oral and written speech.

6.1. Lexical norms.

6.2. Phraseological norms.

The culture of speech, as mentioned earlier, is a multidimensional concept. It is based on the idea that exists in the mind of a person about the “speech ideal”, a model in accordance with which correct, literate speech should be built.

The norm is the dominant concept of the culture of speech. In the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language D.N. Ushakova word meaning norm is defined as follows: "legalized establishment, ordinary obligatory order, state." Thus, the norm reflects, first of all, customs, traditions, streamlines communication and is the result of a socio-historical selection of one option from several possible ones.

Language norms- these are the rules for using linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language (rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of morphological forms of different parts of speech, syntactic constructions, etc.). This is a historically established uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of the language, recorded in grammars and normative dictionaries.

Language norms are characterized by a number of features:

1) relative stability;

2) general usage;

3) general obligatoriness;

4) compliance with the use, tradition and capabilities of the language system.

Norms reflect regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language and are supported by language practice.

The sources of norms are the speech of educated people, the works of writers, as well as the most authoritative mass media.

Norm functions:

1) ensures the correct understanding of each other by speakers of a given language;

2) inhibits penetration into literary language dialect, colloquial, colloquial, slang elements;

3) educates language taste.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. They change over time, reflecting changes in the use of language tools. Sources for changing norms are:

Colloquial speech (cf., for example, colloquial variants such as calls- along with Lit. calls; cottage cheese- along with Lit. cottage cheese; [de]kan along with lit. [d'e]kan);

Vernacular (for example, in some dictionaries they are fixed as valid colloquial stress options contract, phenomenon, until recently, vernacular, non-normative options);

Dialects (for example, in the Russian literary language there are a number of words that are dialectal in origin: spider, snowstorm, taiga, life);

Professional jargons (cf. stress options actively penetrating into modern everyday speech whooping cough, syringes, accepted in the speech of health workers).

The change in norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by native speakers. Language Options- these are two or more ways of pronunciation, stress, formation of grammatical form, etc. The emergence of variants is explained by the development of the language: some linguistic phenomena become obsolete, go out of use, others appear.

However, the options may be equal - normative, acceptable in literary speech ( bakery and bulo [shn] th; barge and barge; Mordvin and Mordvin ov ).

More often, only one of the options is recognized as normative, while others are assessed as unacceptable, incorrect, violating the literary norm ( drivers and wrong. chauffeurA; catholOg and wrong. catalog).

Unequal options. As a rule, variants of the norm are specialized in one way or another. Very often the options are stylistic specialization: neutral - high; literary - colloquial ( stylistic options ). Wed stylistically neutral pronunciation of the reduced vowel in words like s[a] no, n[a] floor, m[a] turf and the pronunciation of the sound [o] in the same words, characteristic of a high, specifically bookish style: s[o] no, p[o] floor, m[o] turf; neutral (soft) pronunciation of sounds [g], [k], [x] in words like shake up [g’i] wag, wave [x’i] wat, jump up [k’i] wat and the bookish, characteristic of the old Moscow noma, the firm pronunciation of these sounds: shudder [gy] walt, wave [hy] walt, jump [ky] walt. Wed also lit. contract, locksmith and and unfold contract, locksmith I.

Often options are specialized in terms of degree of their modernity(chronological options ). For example: modern creamy and outdated. plum [shn] th.

In addition, options may have differences in meaning ( semantic variants ): moves(move, move) and drives(set in motion, induce, force to act).

According to the ratio between the norm and the variant, three degrees of normativity of language units are distinguished.

Norm I degree. A strict, rigid norm that does not allow options. In such cases, variants in dictionaries are accompanied by prohibitive marks: choice s – wrong. choice a; shi [n'e] l - wrong. shi[ne]l; petition - wrong. petition; pampered - not rivers. spoiled. In relation to linguistic facts that are outside the literary norm, it is more correct to speak not about variants, but about speech errors.

Norm II degree. The norm is neutral, allowing equal options. For example: the loop and the loop; swimming pool and ba[sse]in; stack and stack. In dictionaries, similar options are connected by the union and.

Norm III degree. A mobile norm that allows the use of colloquial, obsolete forms. Variants of the norm in such cases are accompanied by marks add.(permissible), add. obsolete(allowable deprecation). For example: August - add. August; budo[h]ik and additional mouth budo[shn]ik.

Variants of norms in the modern Russian literary language are presented very widely. In order to choose the correct option, you need to refer to special dictionaries: orthoepic, stress dictionaries, difficulty dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries, etc.

Language norms are obligatory for both oral and written speech. The typology of norms covers all levels of the language system: pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphology, syntax, spelling, and punctuation are subject to norms.

In accordance with the main levels of the language system and the areas of use of language means, the following types of norms are distinguished.

Norm types


Norms of oral speech	Norms of written speech	Norms of oral and written speech
- accentological(norms of stress setting); - orthoepic(pronunciation norms)	- spelling(correct spelling); - punctuation(norms for punctuation marks)	- lexical(norms of word usage); - phraseological(norms for the use of phraseological units); - derivational(norms of word formation); - morphological(norms for the formation of word forms of various parts of speech); - syntactic(norms for constructing syntactic constructions)

Oral speech is spoken speech. It uses a system of phonetic means of expression, which include: speech sounds, word stress, phrasal stress, intonation.

Specific for oral speech are the norms of pronunciation (orthoepic) and the norms of stress (accentological).

The norms of oral speech are reflected in special dictionaries (see, for example: Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms / edited by R.I. Avanesov. - M., 2001; Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers. - M., 2000).

5.1. Orthoepic norms These are the norms of literary pronunciation.

Orthoepy (from the Greek. orphos - straight, correct and epic - speech) is a set of oral speech rules that ensure the unity of its sound design in accordance with the norms that have historically developed in the literary language.

The following groups of orthoepic norms are distinguished:

Vowel pronunciation: forest - in l[i]su; horn - r [a] ha;

Pronunciation of consonants: teeth - zu [p], o [t] take - o [d] give;

Pronunciation of individual combinations of consonants: in [zh’zh ’] and, [sh’sh’] astya; kone[shn]o;

Pronunciation of consonants in separate grammatical forms (in adjective forms: elastic [gy] th - elastic [g'y]; in verb forms: took [sa] - took [s'a], I remain [s] - I remain [s'];

Pronunciation of words of foreign origin: pu[re], [t’e]rror, b[o]a.

Let us dwell on individual, difficult, cases of pronunciation, when the speaker needs to choose the correct option from a number of existing ones.

The Russian literary language is characterized by the pronunciation of [g] explosive. The pronunciation of [γ] fricative is dialectal, non-normative. However, in a number of words, the norm requires the pronunciation of exactly the sound [γ], which, when stunned, turns into [x]: [ γ ]God, Bo[γ]a - Bo[x].

In Russian literary pronunciation, there used to be a fairly significant range of everyday words in which, in place of letter combinations CHN was pronounced SHN. Now, under the influence of spelling, there are quite a few such words left. Yes, the pronunciation SHN preserved as obligatory in words kone[shn] o, naro[shn] o and in patronymics: Ilini[shn]a, Savvi[shn]na, Nikiti[shn]a(cf. the spelling of these words: Ilyinichna, Savvichna, Nikitichna).

A number of words allow for variants of pronunciation CHN and SHN: decent and orderly [w] ny, bool [h] th and bulo [shn] th, milk [n] and young lady. In some words, the pronunciation SHN is perceived as obsolete: lavo [shn] ik, sin [shn] evy, apple [shn] y.

In scientific and technical terminology, as well as in words of a bookish nature, it is never pronounced SHN. Wed: flowing, cardiac (attack), milky (way), celibate.

consonant cluster Thu in words what to nothing pronounced like PCS: [pcs] about, [pcs] oby, none [pcs] about. In other cases, as Thu: not [th] about, after [th] and, after [th] a, [th] y, [read] ing.

For pronunciation foreign words The following tendencies are typical in the modern Russian literary language.

Foreign words are subject to phonetic patterns in the language, so most foreign words in pronunciation do not differ from Russian ones. However, some words retain the peculiarities of pronunciation. It concerns

1) unstressed pronunciation O;

2) pronunciation of the consonant before E.

1. In some groups of borrowed words that have limited use, an unstressed sound is (unstablely) preserved O. These include:

Foreign proper names: Voltaire, Zola, Jaurès, Chopin;

LITERARY LANGUAGE

(OPTIONS, TYPES OF NORMS)

Plan

1. The concept of the language norm (literary norm).

2. Norm options.

3. Norm types.

The most important quality culture of speech is its correctness, in other words, its compliance with language norms.

What is included in this concept? Let's offer a definition.

The norm of the language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of language means, the uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of the elements of the literary language in a certain period of its development.

The linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposite features. We list the most important of them and give the necessary commentary.

1. Relative sustainability and stability language norms are necessary conditions ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of the language, which is constantly developing along with the creator and native speaker - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, change. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. If we turn to dictionaries and literary sources of 100 years ago, we can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of cupboard), zhyra(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returnedhis(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of necessarily), need to(instead of necessary) etc.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized prevalence and obligatory nature compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to "manage" the elements of speech. On the other hand, one can also talk about "linguistic pluralism" the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (the author of the speech) and objective (language).

In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Norms of the language are obligatory for both oral and written speech. It must be understood that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a particular communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm enshrined all the best that was created in the speech behavior of representatives of this society. It is necessary because it helps to preserve the integrity and intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from vernacular, dialectisms, and jargon.

2. The change in linguistic norms is preceded by the appearance of their options(doublets) that actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of the norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the Orthoepic Dictionary, the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, the Dictionary of Word Combination, etc.

Exist 3 degrees of normativity:

– norm of the 1st degree- strict, rigid, not allowing options (for example, put, but not lie down; t, call but not calls; socks, but not sock);

– norm of the 2nd degree- less strict, allowing equal options, combined in a dictionary entry by the union "and" (for example, right and , right blinds(cf. and pl.), immoral and immoral);

– norm of the 3rd degree- the most mobile, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by a note "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or only a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic."(poetic), "prof."(professional) etc. For example: bank sprat(additional sprats),a cup tea(additional expansion tea), compass(prof. compass).

The norm of the 1st degree is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degree - dispositive rules.

At present, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that the language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, a deviation from the norm is possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of the norms that exist in the literary language.

3. In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(gr. correct speech) - the norms of stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors interfere with the perception of the speaker's speech. social role correct pronunciation is very large, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the process of communication.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as the Dictionary of Russian Stress, Orthoepic Dictionary, Dictionary of Oral Speech Difficulties, etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “ no rivers."(Not recommended), "wrong."(not properly), "rude."(rough), "bran."(swear words), etc.

2. lexical rules, or norms of word usage are: a) the use of the word in the meanings that it has in the modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) the correct choice of a word from a synonymic series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.

3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of the word. Note that the morphological norms primarily include: the norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, the norms for the formation of the plural of nouns, the norms for the formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.

4. Syntactic norms associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When building a phrase, it is necessary first of all to remember about management; when constructing a sentence, one should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using participle turns, construction laws complex sentence etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined under common name – grammar rules.

5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) and punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (writing a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (punctuation marks).

Questions for self-control:

1. What is the norm of the language and what are its features?

2. What is the inconsistency of the norm?

3. What are the differences in the degree of normativity?

4. What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language means?

Let us turn to a detailed consideration of the types of norms indicated above.

Lecture 4 (continued)

B. ORPHOEPIC STANDARDS

Plan

1. Norms of setting stress (accentological norms).

2. Pronunciation of vowels.

3. Pronunciation of consonant sounds.

4. Features of the pronunciation of foreign words.

1. Orthoepic correctness of speech- this is the observance of the norms of literary pronunciation and stress. Correct placement of stress and correct, exemplary pronunciation are important indicators of the general cultural level of a person. In order for an oral presentation to be successful, it must be expressive, and expressiveness is achieved by competent, clear and clear pronunciation, correct intonation and stress. Let's analyze sequentially main aspects of Russian orthoepy, namely: stress norms, rules for pronunciation of stressed and unstressed vowels, hard and soft, voiced and deaf consonants, rules for pronunciation of individual grammatical forms and words of foreign origin.

Due to the heterogeneity and mobility of stress in the Russian language, there are words with the so-called double stress, or accent options. Some of them are equal. For example: rust and rust, meatballs and meatballs, crispy and sparkling, loop and loop´, pale and , the waves are pale and waves. However, most often the stress variants are characterized as unequal, i.e. one of them is the main (preferred), and the other is acceptable (additional). For example: cottage cheese[add. cottage cheese],satiety[add. ta dosy], otherwise[add. otherwise], phenomenon[add. phenomenon],briefly[add. briefly].

If the dictionary contains two unequal accentological options without marks, then the main option is put in first place, followed by an acceptable, less desirable option.

There is also the problem of distinguishing between so-called semantic options- pairs of words in which the diversity of stress is intended to distinguish the meaning of words: flour and flour, sharpness and sharpness, cowardice and shake, castle and castle, submerged and immersed etc. These pairs of words are called homographs.

Sometimes the diversity of stress somewhat modifies the ending of words that are semantic variants. For example: clear prizes(cry) - conscription(age), developed(about activities) – developed(child), linguistic(about sausage) – linguistic(about the error).

Among the unequal options, one should distinguish stylistic options. These are pairs of words that, depending on the place of stress, are used in different functional styles literary language or narrow areas of communication or belong to professionalism. In these cases, stylistic variants are accompanied in dictionaries by the corresponding labels: "specialist."(special use) "poetic."(poetic speech) "tech."(technical term) "prof."(professionalism), etc., in contrast to "common use"(common variant). Compare: underbite(generally used) – bite(specialist.), silk(generally used) - silk(poet.), atomic(generally used) – atomic(prof.), compass(common) - compass(for sailors) stroke(generally used) – Advice(honey.).

1. Features of the language norm and its types.

2. Norms of Russian stress. orthoepic norms.

3. Grammatical correctness of speech.

4. Syntactic norms.

1. Features of the language norm and its types.

The most important sign culture of speech - its correctness, which is determined by the observance of literary norms.

The norm is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, that is, the rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in public language practice. A norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). It is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language contribute to the preservation of the linguistic tradition, the cultural heritage of the past. Norms help maintain their integrity and general understanding. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

Signs of the norm of the literary language: relative stability, common use, general obligatoriness, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), accentological (stress), spelling, word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (business communication). The norm does not divide funds into good and bad, but points to their communicative expediency.

Language norms are a historically changeable phenomenon. The sources of changing norms are different: colloquial speech, local dialects, professional jargons, works of modern writers, media language. The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants, which really exist at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its carriers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern Russian literary language. For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, accented variants of the words “normalize and normalize”, “thinking and thinking” are fixed as equal. Some variants of words are given with appropriate marks: cottage cheese and cottage cheese (colloquial), “agreement and agreement” (simple). If we turn to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language", then we can follow the fate of these options. So, the words “normalize” and “thinking” become more preferable, and their variants are marked “additional.” (permissible). With regard to “cottage cheese and cottage cheese” (colloquial), the norm has not changed, but the variant “agreement” has moved from the colloquial form to the colloquial one and has the mark “additional”.

Language norms are not invented by scientists, they reflect the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language, and are supported by language practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of writers - classics and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by scientists - linguists. As a result of the analysis of the above sources, the most common options are identified that are used equally; rarely seen or completely disappeared. This approach allows scientists to determine what is considered the norm, how it has changed. The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

Norm I degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

Norm II degree - neutral, allowing equal options;

The norm of the III degree is more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

According to the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of the literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends in the further development of the norms of the literary language.

2.Norms of Russian stress. orthoepic norms.

The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology ( from lat. accentus - stress). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from other languages in which stress is assigned to some particular syllable. For example, in English, the stress falls on the first syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate one, in Armenian and French - on the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous.

In addition, stress can be mobile (when the word changes, the stress changes its place) and fixed (in all forms of the word, it falls on the same syllable). Most of the words in Russian have a fixed stress.

The stress has great importance in Russian and performs different functions:

It affects the semantics of the word (cotton and cotton, carnations and carnations);

It indicates the grammatical form (hands - N. p. plural and hands - Gen. p. unit of number);

It helps to distinguish between the meaning of words and their forms (protein - Gen. P. pl. of the word "squirrel") and protein - Im. n. unit of the word, which means "an integral part of the egg").

The variability and mobility of stress often leads to errors (instead of beginning, understood, they pronounce beginning, understood).

The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm (cottage cheese, normalize, thinking). In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect (kitchen, petition). In addition, a number of stress variants are associated with professional area use. There are words in which a specific stress is traditionally accepted only in a narrowly professional environment, in any other setting it is perceived as a mistake:

Spark - in professional speech "spark";

epilepsy - in professional speech "epilepsy";

compass - in professional speech "compass", etc.

In order to avoid mistakes in setting the stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another option can be used. To do this, refer to special dictionaries and reference books. It is best to use the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” or the “Stress Dictionary for Radio and Television Workers” (compiled by F.A. Ageenko, M.V. Zarva, edited by D.E. Rozental). The peculiarity of this dictionary is that it captures only the preferred option. The correct stress is also given in orthographic and explanatory dictionaries Russian language.

Orthoepic norms- these are pronunciation norms of oral speech, they are studied by orthoepy (from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech) - a special section of linguistics. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words.

Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech: the listener's attention is distracted by various pronunciation irregularities and the statement is not fully perceived. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially at the present time, when oral speech has entered such areas as the scientific world, business communication, and the media.

Basic rules for pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, only stressed vowels are in a strong position, and therefore are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the reduction process.

1. The vowels "A" and "O" at the beginning of the word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: [a] enemy, [a] vt [a] nomia, they say [a] ko. In other positions, i.e. in all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed one, in place of the letters O and A, after solid consonants, a very short (highly reduced) obscure sound is pronounced, which is indicated by [b]: g [b] lova, st [b] rona, d [b] horny, city [b] d, etc.

2. The letters "E" and "I" in the pre-stressed syllable denote a sound that is intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is designated [ie]: p[ie] so, p[ie] ro.

3. The vowel “I” after a solid consonant, preposition or with a continuous pronunciation of the word with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: honey [s] institute, from [s] hiding, laughter [s] grief.

The absence of vowel reduction interferes with the normal perception of speech, as it reflects not the literary norm, but dialectal features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter, unreduced pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a rounding dialect, and the replacement of unstressed vowels with [a] without reduction [malako] is perceived as a strong akanye.

Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.

1. In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word: bread [p], sa [t], lyubo [f]. This stun is one of characteristic features literary speech. It should be noted that the sound [g] at the end of the word always goes into its pair [k]: le [k], vice [k]. Pronunciation in such cases [x] is unacceptable as a dialect, the only exception is the word "god" - bo[x].

2. In a position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v] the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced explosive consonant. Only in a few words, Old Church Slavonic in origin - bo[y]a, [y] Lord, bla[y]o, bo[y]aty and derivatives from them, does the fricative back-lingual consonant [y] sound. Moreover, at the present stage of development of the Russian language, the pronunciation of these words also occurs with [g]. It is the most stable in the word [y] Lord.

[G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations of GC and HF: le [hk] y, le [hk] o.

3. In combinations of voiced and deaf consonants (as well as deaf and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second, that is, the process of stunning (lo [sh] ka, pro [n] ka) or voicing ([z] destroy, [ h] beat).

4. Assimilation occurs in consonant combinations. The combination of SS and ZSH is pronounced like a long hard consonant: ni [w] Iy, you [w] y, ra [w] were able, etc.

5. Combinations ZZh and ZhZh inside the root are pronounced as a long soft sound [g]. Currently, instead of a long soft [g], a long hard [g] is pronounced. Both norms are normative: according to [g]e and according to [g]e.

6. The combination of midrange is pronounced as a long soft sound [w], just as it is transmitted in writing by the letter Sh: [sh] astier - happiness, [sh] et - account.

7. You should pay attention to the combination of CHN, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. In the pronunciation of words with this combination, there is hesitation, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow dialect. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination CHN is pronounced [ch], this especially applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing).

The pronunciation [shn] instead of the orthographic CHN is currently required in female patronymics on - ICHNA: Ilyini [shn] a, Lukini [shn] a, and is also preserved in separate words: kone [shn] o, pere[shn] ica, prache [shn] aya, empty [shn] yy, square [shn] ik, eggs [shn] ica, etc.

Some words with a combination of CHN are pronounced in two ways: order [ch] o and order [sh] but, bulo [ch] aya and bulo [shn] aya. In some cases, a different pronunciation serves to semantic differentiation of the words: heart disease and heart [shn] friend.

Pronunciation of loanwords, as a rule, obeys orthoepic norms and only in rare cases differs in features in pronunciation. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables: [o] tel, m [o] del, [o] asis; and hard consonants before the front vowel [e]: st [e] nd, code [e] ks, kashn [e]. In most borrowed words, the consonants soften before [e]: ka[te] t, faculty [e] t, mu[ze] y, [re] ctor, etc. Always before [e] back-lingual consonants are softened: pa [ke] t, [ke] gli, s [he] ma.

2.grammatical correctness of speech.

2.1. The use of noun forms.

The noun rightfully occupies the most important place in the composition of the morphological resources of the Russian language. Their use in comparison with other parts of speech varies depending on the content of the text, its stylistic affiliation, the functional-semantic type of speech, and the writer's intention. Most often, nouns are used in official - business, scientific, journalistic styles. Morphological norms determine the correct use of variable endings and suffixes of nouns, as well as the use of the correct gender and number.

Hesitation in the genus observed in inflected nouns.

Indeclinable foreign words denoting inanimate objects belong to the middle gender: straight highway, lush frill, fixed-route taxi, healing aloe, etc. Exceptions: take - take(generic term "disease"), avenue("the outside"), salami("sausage"), kohlrabi("cabbage") - to the feminine gender;

sirocco("wind" ), penalty("hit"), Hindi, Bengali("language") - to the masculine gender. The name of drinks can be used in the masculine and neuter gender, and in modern use the first option is preferable: Scotch whisky, excellent mocha, delicious bibabo.

Indeclinable foreign words denoting animals, birds, insects are masculine: green cockatoo, small grizzly, gray kangaroo. Exceptions: iwashi("fish, herring ”), tsetse("fly"), hummingbird("bird") . Foreign names of animals are masculine regardless of the sex of the animal. However, if the context indicates a female, then the corresponding words are preferably used in the feminine: chimpanzee feeding her baby.

Indeclinable nouns denoting persons are masculine or feminine, depending on the correlation with a real person: old lady, gorgeous miss, London dandy, tired coolie("laborer" ). The words are bigeneric: incognito, vis-a-vis, protégé(cf.: the mysterious incognito suddenly disappeared - the mysterious incognito suddenly disappeared).

The word "jury" (having a collective meaning) refers to the middle gender.

The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the grammatical gender of the common noun, which acts as a generic concept: sunny Sochi("city"), wide Mississippi("river"), deep erie("lake"). Exception: Beshtau- m.r. (influence of the neighboring mountain Mashuk).

By generic name, the genus of indeclinable press organs is determined: The Times("newspaper") published…; "Figaro literer"("magazine") ... published. Found in colloquial speech The Times published...(the name with a final consonant is assigned to the masculine gender).

Compound words (abbreviations) formed by combining initial letters determine their grammatical gender according to the gender of the main word of the name: Moscow State University- m.r. ("university") CIS- s.r. ("commonwealth"). But, if the division of the statement is difficult or unusual, then we determine the gender at the end of the abbreviation: AIDS- m.r., UFO- s.r., RCC- m.r.

Substantiated indeclinable nouns are neuter: polite “hello”, categorical “but”, bright tomorrow.

Declension of anthroponyms (names and surnames)

1. Ukrainian surnames on - ENKO AND - KO are not inclined (to Korolenko, to Klitschko).

2. Surnames on CONSENT and on - Y are inclined if they denote males,

do not decline when referring to females:

OK, -EK, EC ( Yuriy Korinets, Maria Korinets; Alexandra Pochinok, Alexandra Pochinok), if -OK, - EK, - EC are a suffix, then the surnames are declined without dropping a vowel ( Crustacean - Crustacean, Pepper - Pepper);

H ( at Sasha Vulich, from Maria Romanovich);

Y ( Babiy - Babiy; Shamray – Shamray);

Surnames coinciding with common nouns, geographical names, names of animals, birds, insects, professions are not declined if they refer to females.

3. Surnames on - ЫХ, - THEM are not inclined ( Chernykh, Plesovsky)

4. Russian male surnames on - OV, -IN in T.p. unit ending - YM ( Putin, Pushkin), and foreign surnames have the ending -OM ( Darwin).

5. Male and female surnames in -OVO, -AKO, -AGO, -IAGO do not decline.

6. Georgian and Greek surnames on - And, -E, -U do not decline ( Take, Khalashvili, Beridze, Shalau, Botulu); But surnames like Okudzhav a, Chikobav a bow down.

7. Foreign and Russian surnames ending in unstressed -A are inclined. ( Piekha), if Surnames on - A and - I coincide with common nouns (with the names of the position of people (Orphan), animals, birds, insects, objects of nicknames (Fish, Book, Grave) in official speech they do not decline, in colloquial declension is possible, which is connected with the desire to breed a proper name and a common noun.

8. If the surname coincides in sound with the names, then a declined and a non-inclined variant is possible.

9. Rare surnames formed from combinations of a verb and a noun in V.p. do not decline ( Zabeyvorota, Namniboka), as opposed to surnames like Podoprigora, Nagnibed, who bow.

10. Foreign surnames do not decline to vowel.

11. Surnames of Polish and Czech origin in -SKA, -UKA are inclined according to the model of the noun MASK ( Jablonska, Mamuka) .

12. Non-Slavic names are not inclined to - O ( Leonardo, Othello).

Declension of toponyms (place names)

1. Geographical names on -OV (O), - EV (O), -IN (O), - ЫН (О) in modern Russian function in inflected and indeclinable versions. In an invariable form, these names are used in the following cases: a) with words denoting generic concepts ( at Likhovo station, in the village of Belkino); b) when matching with surnames ( I live in Pushkino); c) if the name is in quotation marks (near the Golovlevo farm).

a) toponyms on - A:

Long-borrowed names decline, as well as well-known names in the territory former USSR(in Lausanne, from Geneva, across Makhachkala from Klaipeda);

Compound names borrowed from Spanish, Italian and other languages \u200b\u200bare not inclined (from Santiago - de - Cuba); as a rule, Japanese names are not inclined (in Osaka, in Sunagawa);

Decline French place names like Toulouse Geneva, the note is not inclined with the stress on the last syllable (Gra, Spa, Le - Dora).

b) toponyms in - O, - E do not decline (Oslo, Tokyo, Sorrento);

c) toponyms on - Y are inclined (in Cheboksary, in Thebes);

d) toponyms in - And do not decline (Tbilisi, Sukhimi, Chile).

3. Consonant toponyms are consistently and regularly declined. Names (Russian or long-established) used with generic terms are inclined (in the city of Rostov, in the village of Samarskoye, etc.) Exactly, in the city of Sumy).

4. The names of principalities, duchies, states, provinces are not inclined (in the principality of Liechtenstein, in the state of California).

5, The names of lakes, tracts, islands, mountains, deserts, capes are not inclined (in the Sahara Desert, on Cape Chelyuskin, near Lake Baikal).

5. Names in - FL represent a complex case of declension. All Slavic toponyms - applications decline ( in the Republic of Bulgaria). Toponyms of other origin are inclined in newspaper and colloquial speech, not in official documents ( Ambassador of the Republic of Germany).

6. Geographical names representing the full forms of adjectives are declined together with generic concepts ( on Mount Zheleznaya, to Kamensky Island).

7. Compound names are subject to the following rules:

Both parts are inclined if the toponym is Russian or a long-established name ( in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky);

Names with closely welded elements are not inclined (Spas - Zaulok, Ust - Labinsk);

The first part of foreign toponyms, as a rule, does not decline (in Alma-Ata, near Buenos-Aires). The exception is toponyms with the name of the river (in Frankfurt am Main).

2.2. Adjective.

Adjective forms. There are a number of semantic, grammatical and stylistic differences between the full and short forms of the adjective.

1. Full and short forms may differ in meaning: deaf from birth - deaf to requests.

2. Full forms usually denote constant sign, short - temporary (the so-called qualitative state): a woman is sick - a woman is sick. The full form can also denote an absolute sign, a short relative one, in relation to a certain situation: the ceiling is low - the ceiling is low (for someone or something).

3. The long and short forms can govern nouns differently: I'm ready to leave, he's prone to a cold,

4. The short form is usually more categorical: the decision is thought out and objective - the decision is thought out and objective.

5. The short form is more preferable in book-written forms of speech - scientific and official - business styles.

Degrees of comparison of the adjective: education and use.

Degrees of comparison, as is known, have only quality adjectives. To form a simple comparative degree, suffixes are used - EE (- YE), - E, - SHE. But not all qualitative adjectives form a simple comparative degree. Restrictions in education can be associated with semantic, structural and accentological factors, which is reflected in the classification:

a) semantic restrictions:

The adjective denotes the so-called absolute sign: dead, mute;

The adjective names the colors of animals: crow, bay;

The adjective denotes colors such as burgundy, blue, lilac, purple and some others;

b) structural constraints:

Adjectives have the suffix -AT or -OVAT: toothed, striped, roundish, heavy;

Adjectives have the suffix -L: seasoned, sunken;

Adjectives have the suffix -SK: fraternal, comic;

c) accentological restrictions: the adjective has a suffix - OB or - N- and a stressed ending - OY: free, manual.

2.3. Numeral.

Declension of numerals. Cardinal numbers are declined as follows:

P.	50-60	200-400	500-900
AND.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
R.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
D.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
AT.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
T.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
P.	about fifty	about three hundred	about six hundred

1. In normative speech, all parts of the compound quantitative numeral are declined: pay off two hundred and sixty-seven rubles.

2. In the ordinal number, only the last word is declined: three hundred and seventy-first in turn.

3. Numerals FORTY, NINETY, HUNDRED, as well as 150, 150 have only two forms: for the I. and V. cases, another for all the others with the ending - A: forty, ninety, one hundred.

4. Numerals ONE THOUSAND has in T.p. unit form THOUSAND, and the noun is one THOUSAND.

5. Of the two options eight and eight the first is bookish, the second is colloquial.

The use of collective nouns. Collective numerals is a closed group of words, which includes 9 numerals (2-10). Collective numerals are formed from quantitative ones, but differ from them in features of compatibility:

1. Collective nouns combine with male nouns and do not combine with female names: two doctors, but two nurses; three soldiers, two students. The restrictions are only stylistic in nature: in strictly normalized speech there are no combinations of the type: two generals, two associate professors.

2. Collective numerals are combined with nouns CHILDREN, PEOPLE, PERSONS, PERSON, as well as with personal pronouns WE, YOU, THEY: two of us, three people, five children.

3. Collective numerals are combined with substantiated adjectives and participles with the meaning of a person: two prisoners, three managers.

4. Collective numbers are combined with the names of baby animals, but are not used with the name of adult animals: seven kittens, but seven cats.

5. Collective numbers are combined with nouns that are used only in the plural: two days, three sledges.

And also with nouns that have a couple: two gloves, three pants.

3. syntactic rules.

Syntax is a system of linguistic means and types of combining words into more complex structures (phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole). The initial unit of syntax is the word.

Syntactic norms are historically established and theoretically meaningful rules for linking words into grammatical structures, such as sentences and phrases.

In modern speech, syntactic errors are often found, consisting in a violation of the order of words; incorrect coordination and management; mixing direct and indirect speech; the use of isolated members of the sentence in constructions that are unacceptable for them.

Violation of the order of words in a sentence.

Modern Russian has a free word order. Distinguish between direct and indirect word order. In direct word order, the predicate is placed after the subject; an agreed definition is placed before the word being defined, and an inconsistent one after; the complement comes after the predicate; the circumstance is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence or next to the predicate. indirect order words is not erroneous, it is called inversion. Changes in the order of words are always associated with a change in meaning, most often with an increase in expression, introduced by the grammatical means of the language. Inversion is a figure of speech in which the words are not in the order required by the grammar rule: She turned pale, like a shroud, turned cold, like dew, Her scythe developed like a soul-snake.

In some cases, word order determines the meaning of the statement: Mother loves daughter. The daughter loves her mother. In cases of coincidence of forms by Im. p. and Vin. P. should use constructions with direct word order, otherwise ambiguity is inevitable : Villages and villages are served by dozens of agronomists. Staff turnover creates a careless attitude of the administration.

The place of the subordinate clause in a complex sentence may also be important. So, conditional (relating to one word, and not to the entire main part) subordinate clauses should be immediately after the word being defined, otherwise grammatical incorrectness will lead to a semantic error: Similar phenomena can be found in Russian prose and poetry even today, against which the angry words of a publicist are directed.

Coordination and management in modern Russian.

The grammatical system of the Russian language includes three main types of subordination: coordination, control, connection. Coordination is the acquisition of word-dependent grammatical meanings of the main word. Adjective use in the same form as a noun, i.e. acquires the same grammatical meanings. When the form of the noun changes, the form of the dependent adjective must also change.

At management the dependent word is put in a specific form required by the main word: advantage over whom?; superiority over whom?; pay for what? pay for what? fee for what?; payment for what? payment for what? If in the phrase the main word is a noun or another nominal part of speech, then they say about nominal management; if the main word is a verb, the control is called verbal.

A special type of agreement between the predicate and the subject is called coordination. The difficulty is the choice of the form of the predicate, if the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination. Here are some rules that determine the norms of agreement (coordination) of the subject with the predicate.

1. If the subject includes a noun with a value of an indefinite amount ( mass, heap, heap etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of units. h. A lot of time was spent on preparation.

2. If the statement conveys the joint action of several persons, then the predicate can stand both in the singular form and in the plural form: Grandfather and granddaughter came to visit; Brother and sister went to the village. The choice of one of the two possible forms of agreement of the predicate depends on the semantic correlation of the action and its producer. In the first case, the whole combination will be the subject, in the second - only the noun in it. P., noun in creative p. - addition.

3. If the subject includes numerals ( two, three, four and etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of plural. h. Two people arrived late. Although in this case another option is also possible - conditional agreement in the form of units. h. wed r., because the numeral has no category of number at all.

4. If the subject includes nouns with the meaning of a certain amount ( three, couple, hundred etc.), then the predicate is put in the singular form: Three horses are harnessed to a wagon.

5. If the subject, which includes numerals, is preceded by restrictive particles ( everything, only, only Only five people came to class.

6. If the subject includes nouns with the meaning of the time period ( hour, day, year etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of units. hours: Two years have passed.

7. If the subject includes a compound number ending in one (thirty-one, two hundred and eighty-one, one hundred and sixty-one etc.), then the predicate is put in the singular form: One hundred and twenty one students took part in the conference.

8. If the subject includes numerals thousand, million, billion, then the predicate is put in the singular form: Thousands of people showed up for the subbotnik.

9. If collective noun there are several controlled words in the form genus. P. plural, which reinforces the idea of the plurality of producers of action, then the predicate is put in the form of plural: Most of my habits and tastes did not please him.

10. If there are homogeneous predicates with the subject, then they are put in the plural: Most of the part-time students completed all the tests in a timely manner, passed the tests and prepared well for the exams;

If the verb that plays the role of the predicate is in the past tense or conditional mood, then the predicate is consistent with the pronoun who in the masculine and singular, but with a pronoun what in the neuter gender and singular: Who's come?- but not Who came?(even if we are talking about several people); What happened?

When agreeing on a predicate with a subject that has an application, the following should be borne in mind:

a) the predicate is consistent with the subject, therefore the gender and number of the noun-application does not affect the form of the predicate: The girl-pilot skillfully drove the car;

b) when a generic name and a specific name are combined, the function of the subject is performed by the first, denoting a broader concept, and the predicate is consistent with this word: St. John's wort grew throughout the clearing;

c) When a common noun is combined with the proper name of a person, the latter acts as the subject, and the predicate agrees with it: The new accountant Irina Petrovna went to work.

Other proper names (names of animals, geographical names, names of press organs, etc.) are applications, and the predicate is consistent with the common noun, for example: The dog Trezor barked loudly (38).

When agreeing the predicate with complex nouns that form compound terms like cafe-dining room, take into account the semantic relationships between frequent compound word. The leading component with which the predicate agrees is the word that expresses a broader concept or specifically denotes an object: cafe-dining room renovated (dining room - broader concept) vending machine open(the carrier of a specific meaning is the word diner); the chair-bed was in the corner(one of the types of chairs is conceived, the second part acts as a clarifying one); raincoat tent lay folded(tent in the form of a raincoat, not a raincoat in the form of a tent).

The order of parts of a complex name also plays a role, the inclination or non-inclination of one of the components, context conditions:

1. Usually the leading word is in the first place, with which the predicate agrees, for example: children liked the toy car ( compare: children liked the car toy); the library-museum acquired the writer's unpublished manuscripts; showcase-stand changed in the hall.

2. If a non-leading word is in the first place, then in such combinations, as a rule, it does not decline, which serves as the basis for coordinating the predicate with the second word of a complex name: "Roman-newspaper" was published in large circulation(cf .: in "Roman-gazeta" ...); raincoat rolled up ( compare: cover yourself with a raincoat).

3. Influence of context, in particular lexical meaning predicate, affects the choice of the form of the predicate, cf .: the scale car is attached to the train. – A standard weighing wagon was designed, accurately measuring a given amount of ores (38).

The definition for common nouns is put in the form of masculine or feminine, depending on what gender the person denotes by this noun: This simpleton is able to confuse everything in the world(about a man); This dormouse sleeps all day(about a woman).

Words like celebrity, personality, person etc., are not common nouns, so the definitions agree with them grammatically, i.e. are put in the feminine form and in those cases when they denote males: There's a new identity on our horizon(A.P. Chekhov); There was an important person in the city - the capital's actor.

Also, many masculine nouns denoting a person by profession, specialty, position held, which do not have paired feminine equivalents, are also not common gender words, the so-called masculisms. Definitions for such words are put in the masculine form: she is an experienced teacher, she is a famous master of sports.

An incorrect combination of words can be caused by a mixture of nominal and verbal control. It must be borne in mind that with a verb, the dependent word can be used in one grammatical

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

Causes of mass speech errors

The causes of negative phenomena in speech practice include:

· people's trust in the printed word (the habit of considering everything printed and said on television as an example of the norm);

· reduction of editorial exactingness to journalists regarding observance of language norms;

Decrease in the quality of proofreading work;

· the gap between the complicated requirements of the new school curriculum in the Russian language and the real possibilities of today's Russian school;

Decreased interest of schoolchildren in classical literature;

· problems in replenishment of the library fund;

· the transformation of the "Rules of Spelling and Punctuation" of 1956 into a bibliographic rarity and the absence of their new edition;

disrespect for the humanities;

disrespect for addressees of speech;

disregard for one's native language.

In this regard, in the modern school, in the lessons of the humanitarian cycle, it is necessary to pay great attention to the problems of the modern language, not to ignore the existing linguistic facts, but to interpret them and form the attitude of schoolchildren to the development of their native language.

Topic number 3. The concept of a language norm. The main types of norms.

1. What is the norm of the language and what are its features?

Language norm (literary norm)- these are the rules for the use of language means, a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of elements of the literary language in a certain period of its development.

Features of the language norm:

Stability and stability, ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time;

General prevalence and obligatory observance of normative rules;

Cultural and aesthetic perception (assessment) of the language and its facts; in the norm, all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of mankind is fixed;

Dynamic character (variability), due to the development of the entire language system, which is realized in live speech;

The possibility of linguistic "pluralism" (the coexistence of several options that are recognized as normative).

Codification is a linguistically reliable description of the fixation of the norms of the literary language in specially designed sources (grammar books, dictionaries, reference books, manuals).

2. What is the inconsistency of the norm?

The linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposite features.

1. Relative sustainability and stability language norms are necessary conditions for ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of the language, which is constantly developing along with the creator and native speaker - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, change. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. If we turn to dictionaries and literary sources of 100 years ago, we can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: closet (instead of a wardrobe), zhyra (instead of heat), strict (instead of strict), quiet (instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky Theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), vernivshis (instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly (instead of mandatory), necessary (instead of necessary), etc.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized ubiquity and ubiquity compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to "manage" the elements of speech. On the other hand, one can also talk about "linguistic pluralism"- the existence of several options (doublets) at the same time, which are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (the author of the speech) and objective (language).

3. Basic sources of language norms- these are, first of all, works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance of literary tradition and the authority of sources, should also be kept in mind author's individuality capable of violating norms, which, of course, is justified in certain situations of communication.
The change in language norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of the norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the Orthoepic Dictionary, the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, the Dictionary of Word Combination, etc.
At present, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that the language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, a deviation from the norm is possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of the norms that exist in the literary language.

3. What are the trends in the development of language norms?

In the development of language norms, certain trends are observed:

1) the trend towards savings. This tendency is manifested at all levels of the language (from nomination to syntax) and is expressed in the contraction of words and elements, for example scientific (scientific library), you brought me (out of balance); loss of suffixes, endings: rails - rail, grams - grams, wet - wet.

2) a tendency towards unification - trimming private grammatical knowledge under a general form: director, professor

3) the expansion of colloquiality into book speech and the neutralization of colloquial elements in literary speech.

4. What are the differences in the degree of normativity?

According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:

1. Strict(mandatory) norm (norm of the 1st degree) - in this type of norm there is only one correct option. Ex: document.

2. Neutral norm (norm of the 2nd degree) - there are two equal options. Pr: cottage cheese - cottage cheese.

3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) - has two options, these options are not equal: the 1st option is the main one, the 2nd option is not literary.

The norm of 1 degree is called imperative, norms of 2 and 3 degrees - dispositive norms.

5.What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools?

In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(gr. correct speech) - the norms of stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors interfere with the perception of the speaker's speech. The social role of correct pronunciation is very great, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the process of communication.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as the Dictionary of Russian Stress, Orthoepic Dictionary, Dictionary of Oral Speech Difficulties, etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “ no rivers."(Not recommended), "wrong."(not properly), "rude."(rough), "bran."(swear words), etc.

4. Syntactic norms associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When building a phrase, it is necessary first of all to remember about management; when building a sentence, one should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using adverbial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined under the general name - grammar rules.

6. Where is the language norm fixed? Give examples.

The language norm is fixed in normative dictionaries and grammars. A significant role in the dissemination and preservation of norms belongs to fiction, theater, school education and media.

Some names and denominations (for example, names of geographical objects) may exist in a language in various forms(variants), however, usually only one of them is normalized form, that is, in a form that is mandatory for use in scientific, reference and educational publications, as well as in periodicals. For example: St. Petersburg (Peter).

Language norms(norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of language means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:

Compliance with the structure of the language;

Mass and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speaking people

Public approval and recognition.

Language norms are not invented by philologists, they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the whole people. The norms of the language cannot be introduced or canceled by decree, they cannot be reformed by administrative means. The activity of linguists studying the norms of a language is different - they identify, describe and codify linguistic norms, as well as explain and promote them.

The main sources of the language norm are:

Works of classical writers;

Works by contemporary writers who continue the classical traditions;

Media publications;

Common modern usage;

Linguistic research data.

The characteristic features of language norms are:

relative stability;

prevalence;

general use;

general obligation;

conformity with the use, custom and possibilities of the language system.

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of a language system, selected and enshrined in

the process of public communication.

The normalization of speech is its correspondence to the literary and linguistic ideal.

In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:

norms of written and oral forms of speech;

norms of written speech;

oral language norms.

The norms common to oral and written speech include:

Lexical norms;

Grammar norms;

Stylistic norms.

The special rules of writing are:

Spelling standards;

Punctuation rules.

Applies to spoken language only:

Pronunciation norms;

Norms of stress;

intonation norms.

7. Imperative norms and variant

Language norms, especially the norms of such a developed literary language as Russian language, is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, reflecting both social and aesthetic views on the word, and internal, independent of the taste and desire of the speakers, the laws of the language system in its continuous development and improvement.

At the same time, the culture of speech presupposes the observance of these norms with varying degrees of obligation, rigor, there are fluctuations in the norms, which is reflected in the assessment of speech, which occurs on a scale correct/permissible/incorrect. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between two types of norms - imperative (mandatory) and dispositive (additional). Violations of imperative and dispositive norms can be understood as gross and non-coarse.

Imperative norms in language- these are rules that are mandatory for implementation, reflecting the laws of the functioning of the language. An example of imperative norms are the rules of conjugation, declension, agreement, etc. Such norms do not allow variants (non-variable norms), and any other implementations are regarded as incorrect, inadmissible. For example: alphabet ( not alphabet), accepted (did not accept), chicken ( not chicken), thanks what ( not thanks to what).

Linguists note that the variation of the norm is an objective and inevitable consequence of linguistic evolution. The presence of variance, i.e., the stage of coexistence of the old and the new quality, from their point of view, is even useful, expedient: variants allow you to get used to the new form, make the change in the norm less tangible and painful, (for example , waves - waves, Sparkling - sparkling, herbal - herbal). These options cover different levels of the language: there are orthoepic variants of the norm ( weekdays [w] ny and weekdays [h "] ny), morphological and derivational ( spasm husband. gender and spasm female genus, leprosy and play pranks), variants of grammatical forms ( tea and tea, caplet and dripping), syntax options ( executed than and full of what, waiting for a letter and waiting for a letter).

Shape variation- this is not a constant property of specific language units. The fluctuation continues for a more or less long period, after which the variants diverge in meaning, acquiring the status of independent words. For example, in the past of an uneducated person ( ignoramus) could be called ignorant.(At I. A. Krylov: The ignoramuses judge exactly that. What they don’t understand, then everything is a trifle with them.) In another case, a productive variant completely displaces its competitor (this happened, for example, with the variant turner and normative in the XVIII-XIX centuries. turner).