Types of grammatical categories. Grammatical category and meaning

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, aspect), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equipotent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Verbs perfect look they answer only the semantic question What to do7, and imperfective verbs, except for the question What to do7, in some speech situations also answer the question What to do7: - What did this boy do wrong7 What did he do7- He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Some masculine and feminine personal nouns form an equipotent opposition: mother - father, brother - sister, girl boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone , to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, there are inflectional and classifying ( lexico-grammatical) categories. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives are inflectional, the category of case of nouns, the category of person,

declension, tense of the verb, etc. It is customary to classify the category of gender in nouns, aspect in the verb Some kate! orii turn out to be mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such is, for example, the category of number in nouns.

AV Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories 8.

Note. E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out as a special type interpretative morphological categories “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense<>as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part9. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, the opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative forms is organized. nogo cases indirect cases.

Parts of speech in Russian and principles of their selection. The question of the status of modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia in the system of parts of speech. Phenomena of transitivity in the system of parts of speech.

Parts of speech are grammatical classes of words characterized by a combination of the following features: 1) the presence of a generalized meaning, abstracted from the lexical and morphological meanings of all words of this class; 2) a complex of certain morphological categories; 3) a common system (identical organization) of paradigms; and 4) a commonality of basic syntactic functions.

Note. The identical organization of paradigms (full and private) is not violated by the absence of private paradigms or separate forms for some words or groups of words belonging to one or another part of speech. Thus, the absence of short forms in a number of adjective private paradigms or the absence of forms in intransitive verbs suffer. participles does not bring words with such incomplete paradigms beyond such parts of speech as adjective and verb.

In modern Russian, there are ten parts of speech: 1) a noun; 2) pronoun-noun; 3) adjective; 4) numeral; 5) adverb; 6) verb; 7) pretext; 8) union; 9) particles; 10) interjection.

The first six parts of speech are significant (full-meaning or independent) words, i.e. words that are lexically independent, naming objects and signs or pointing to them, and capable of functioning as members of a sentence. Prepositions, unions and particles are auxiliary, i.e. lexically non-independent, words that serve to express various syntactic relations (prepositions and unions), as well as to form analytical forms or to express the syntactic and modal meanings of a sentence (particle). Interjections constitute a special group of words: they do not name anything and serve to express an emotional attitude and subjective assessments.

Inside significant words, crossing their main grammatical division into parts of speech, there is a division of words, firstly, into proper-significant (non-indicative words) and pronominal (indicative words) and, secondly, into uncountable and countable. Demonstrative (pronominal) words include words that do not name an object or feature, but only point to it, including words that indicate quantity and quantitative feature, for example: I, you, he; that, such, some; there, there; as much as. Counting words include words that name the number of objects (numerals), a sign by place in a counted series (ordinal adjectives), quantitative characteristics (adverbs), for example: five, two, sixth, three times, two. There are no verbs among demonstratives or counting words.

Among the significant parts of speech, two groups are distinguished: the main parts of speech, which include the noun, adjective, verb and adverb, and the non-basic parts of speech, which include the pronoun-noun and numeral. The main parts of speech have the whole complex of features that characterize the part of speech as a special grammatical class of words. The composition of the words included in these parts of speech is constantly replenished due to neoplasms and borrowed words. From the side of meaning, the main parts of speech are characterized by the following oppositions:

1) a noun as naming an object (substance) is opposed to all other parts of speech - an adjective, an adverb and a verb as naming an attribute of an object or another attribute;

2) within the parts of speech naming the attribute, the adjective and adverb naming the non-procedural attribute are opposed to the verb naming the procedural attribute;

3) the parts of speech that name the attribute are also opposed to each other depending on whether they name the attribute of only the object (verb, adjective) or the attribute of both the object and another attribute (adverb).

The non-basic parts of speech - the pronoun-noun and the numeral - are closed, non-replenishing classes of words. The pronoun-noun has a system of morphological categories close to the noun; the difference from the noun lies in the inconsistency of the expression by the pronoun-noun of the morphological meanings of gender and number.

The numeral, in its morphological meanings and the way they are expressed, occupies an intermediate position between the noun and the adjective: the numeral is characterized by the morphological category of the case; the system of its case forms does not differ from the system of case forms of a noun or (for such words as how much, several, many, a little) from the system of adjective forms; however, the numeral does not have morphological categories of gender and number (about some exceptions. In indirect cases, the forms of the numeral differ from the forms of the adjective by incomplete agreement with the noun being defined.

Depending on the ability or inability of words to change (the formation of forms), the parts of speech of significant words are divided into changeable (all significant parts of speech, except for those adverbs that do not form forms of comparative degrees) and invariable (those adverbs that do not form forms of compare. degrees). By the nature of inflection, the changeable parts of speech are divided into inflected and conjugated. Declined parts of speech combine all names: noun, adjective, numeral and pronoun-noun; they all change in cases, that is, they decline. The conjugated part of speech is the verb; all verbs change in tenses, moods, persons and numbers (in the past tense and subjunctive inflection - by gender), i.e., they are conjugated.

Service words - prepositions, conjunctions and particles do not name objects and signs; their lexical meanings are meanings abstracted from the relations they express in the sentence. The meaning that combines service words into one or another part of speech differs from the meaning that combines significant words into one part of speech: the commonality of service words is only a functional community.

Functional words are opposed to significant words as words that, firstly, do not have morphological categories and, secondly, perform only auxiliary functions in a syntactic construction. Service words are used to connect words, sentences or parts of a sentence, and also serve to express different shades of the speaker's subjective attitude to the content of the message. Individual particles are involved in the formation of analytical forms of the word.

Parts of speech is the most general grammatical classification of words. Within each significant part of speech, lexical and grammatical categories of words are distinguished. These are such subclasses of a given part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain morphological meanings or enter into oppositions within morphological categories. Lexico-grammatical categories are, for example, in a verb - modes of action, transitive and intransitive verbs, categories of reflexive verbs, personal and impersonal verbs; in a noun - animate and inanimate nouns, collective, real, abstract and concrete, as well as proper and common nouns; in an adjective - adjectives of quality, relative (including possessive and ordinal), in an adverb - adverbs of quality and circumstantial. Many lexico-grammatical categories of words are characterized by incompleteness of paradigms. Thus, nouns belonging to the categories of material, collective and abstract are nouns only singular. h. or only many. hours (singularia or pluralia tantum), proper nouns, as a rule, are not used in plural forms. hours; relative adjectives, as a rule, cannot have comparative forms. degrees, as well as short forms; verbs belonging to the category of impersonal do not change by person.

Note. In itself, the incompleteness of the paradigm, i.e., the impossibility of forming a number of forms or individual forms of a word, cannot yet serve as a defining feature in the classification of words into lexicogrammatic categories: such incompleteness can be explained not only by the peculiarities of the lexical meanings of words, but also by their morphological structure or phonemic composition. For individual words, the incompleteness of paradigms is associated with the practical uncommonness of individual forms (for example, the forms of the genus p.

Parts of speech and lexico-grammatical categories are groupings of words. Along with this articulation, a proper morphological classification of word forms is possible (sometimes including whole words). This is a classification into morphological categories. Morphological categories are associations of morphological forms of words based on the commonality of their inflectional morphological meanings, as well as those formal means by which these meanings are expressed.

The following morphological categories are distinguished. 1) The category of forms expressing only the meaning of the case; this includes all forms (full paradigms) of noun pronouns (I, you, who, what) and numerals, except for the words one, two, both and one and a half. 2) The category of forms expressing the meanings of case and number unites all forms (full paradigms) of nouns. 3) The category of forms expressing the meanings of gender and case unites all forms (full paradigms) of the numerals two, both, one and a half. 4) The category of forms expressing the meanings of case, number and gender combines generic case forms of adjectives, valid. and full of suffering. participles and all forms (full paradigm) of the countable pronominal word one (one, one - one). 5) The category of forms expressing the meanings of gender and number combines short forms of adjectives and suffering. participles, forms past. temp. and exiled. incl. the verb, as well as all forms of the words glad, love, much, should, such, words like too big, too small, alone, alone, radёhonek, radyoshenek and words on enek, onek (twin, strict). 6) The category of forms expressing the meanings of a person and a number combines personal forms of present, bud. simple and bud. difficult times.

All of the listed categories are opposed by the category of unchangeable words and word forms that do not express the meanings of case, number, gender and person. Here all adverbs are combined, forms will compare. degrees of adjectives and adverbs, gerunds and infinitives.

Service words do not form morphological categories.

Term grammar is used in two senses.

1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;

2) Grammar - the doctrine of these means, methods, rules with which you can create phrases, sentences in a particular language.

Grammar in the first sense is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.

Grammar consists of several aspects:

1. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.

2. Syntax (translated from Greek as "military formation") explores different types combinations of words, relations between words in a phrase and a sentence, finally, the sentence as a whole, different kinds and types of offers.

MORPHOLOGY(from the Greek "the doctrine of form") - a branch of linguistics, the main object of which are words natural languages and their significant parts are morphemes. The tasks of morphology include the definition of the word as a special linguistic object and the description of its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and the morphemes that form them, but also those grammatical meanings that are expressed within the word (or "morphological meanings"). In accordance with these two major tasks, morphology is often divided into two areas: "formal" morphology, or morphemics, and grammatical semantics.

SYNTAX(from the Greek "system, order") - a set of grammatical rules of the language related to the construction of phrases and sentences. In a broader sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just a verbal language.

Its essence- in the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its expression.

Signs of grammatical meaning are regularity (the meaning of the number for all nouns) and the typified nature of the means of expression, a limited set of means.

The means of expressing this value is directly dependent on the language.

1) in synthetic languages ​​- auxiliary morphemes (affixes), reduplication (orang-orang), suppletivism (human-human), internal inflection (foot-fiit) and stress (hands-hands).

2) In analytical languages ​​- function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles), intonation, word order (hi hez a pen, hez hee e pen?)

Grammatical categories differ in their parameters (the system of opposition of members, the binomial system of the category of number, the polynomial system of the category of gender), in terms of their correlation with reality, real - lexical-grammatical (the category of number) and unreal - grammatical proper (category of animation or gender)

A wide variety of words also fall under the masculine category: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.

In Russian, a noun has grammatical categories number, gender and case, and the verb - number, tense, type, mood, pledge, person, gender.

The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages ​​in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. In Russian watch - masculine, in German and French - feminine. There are languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat have a common gender, examples from the Russian language - an orphan, quiet, bore, crybaby.

For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the very grammatical category of gender in different languages very diverse:

1. with the help of special endings: guest - guest, spouse, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;

2. using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister.

3. with the help of contextual clarification only: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).

Number category. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. The universality of the category of number lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.

If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language completely dispenses with it, attracting other ways to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).

By grammatical categories are distinguished by the nature of grammatical meanings:

(2) formal categories reflecting the limitations of word forms associated with compatibility (for example, “consensual” grammatical categories participate in the design of agreement relations).

There are also categories shaping, according to which the lexeme can change (for example, case of a noun; gender, number and case of an adjective; tense and mood of a verb); and classifying, characteristic of the whole lexeme and constant for it (for example, the gender of inanimate nouns, animateness/inanimateness of most nouns, transitivity/intransitivity and personality/impersonality of most verbs).

The concept of the grammatical meaning of a word. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words. The concept of the grammatical form of a word. The main ways and means of forming grammatical forms of the word.

The grammatical meaning of the word- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.

Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.

1.Flexia. So in the phrase "book of Peter" the connection between the words is achieved with the help of the ending a.

2. Functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) “went to my brother”

3. The order of words acts as a way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages ​​in which there is no inflection. And the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form.

4. Emphasis. For example: Hands-hands, houses-houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.

5. Intonation. Depending on how we say "students are attentive" with an intonation of affirmation or "students are attentive?" with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes.

6. Suppletivism is a combination of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair:

a. when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse.

b. when forming personal pronouns: I - me.

7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when there is a complete or partial doubling of the base, for example:

a. to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang-orang (people);

b. to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).

Grammatical form- this is the connection of grammatical meaning with the grammatical way of its expression. Yes, in verbs jump, burst, shout there is a suffix well-, which indicates a one-time action, and - be- infinitive suffix.

Methods of formation of grammatical forms of the word. Forming methods.

The Russian language belongs to the languages ​​of the synthetic system. Therefore, to identify grammatical meanings, he uses mainly synthetic means.

Shaping methods:

1. Affixation = suffix, ending, prefix express grammatical meaning.

2. Changing the sound composition of the root, expressing various grammatical meanings (remove - remove, send - send); alternation (freeze - freeze, bake - bake).

3. Emphasis: at home (= r.p., singular) - at home (im. p., pl.).

4.Suppletivism - an expression of grammatical meaning using the roots of other words: man - people, I - me, bad - worse.

5. Intonation: for example, in the transfer of various shades of the meaning of the imperative mood of the verb.

Less common, but still used analytical forms. Then the lexical and grammatical meanings receive a separate expression (lexical - by the word itself, grammatical - by an auxiliary component: I will write, let it burst ...).

Finally, are used analytic-synthetic forms, in which grammatical meanings are partially reflected by the form of the main word - the carrier of lexical meaning, and partially - by an auxiliary component: with would go.

In grammatical categories, the originality of the languages ​​of the world is manifested. Thus, the category of gender familiar to East Slavic languages ​​turns out to be unknown to entire families of languages ​​- Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. In Chinese there is no grammatical category of number, in Japanese there are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In Russian, the category of noun gender is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, while in Lithuanian, nouns retain gender differences in the plural.

1) grammatical category (GC) acts generalization a number of (required at least two) correlative between themselves and opposed to each other grammatical meanings, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms (generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc.)

2) GCs can change and disappear(cases in English language(4=>2), category of number in Russian (singular, plural, dual)

3) GCs are divided into morphological and syntactic, namely:

a) morphological- uniting grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes, i.e. in the center of morphological categories is the word with its grammatical changes and with its grammatical characteristics; morphological GCs are expressed in the following forms:

• inflectional forms:

combine word forms within the same lexeme (for example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional; the adjective is consistent with the noun, taking its grammatical gender: white paper, White spot)

• classification forms:

classification categories unite lexemes on the basis of a common grammatical meaning (the category of noun gender is classificatory; the noun table is masculine, the wall is feminine, the window is neuter, and this generic “attachment” is strictly obligatory)

b) syntactic categories- these are categories based on morphological categories, but far beyond them: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under general concept"predicativity".

Grammar meaning:

grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language.

To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.

1) the degree of coverage of lexical material:

grammatical meaning groups groups of words into specific grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity combines a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, the grammatical meaning of an action unites another part of the vocabulary into the class of a verb, etc.

2) acts in relation to the lexical additional, accompanying:

With the help of various formal indicators, we can change the appearance of a word without changing its lexical meaning (water-water-water-water-water; carry-carry-carry-carry-carry-carry, etc.). However, the grammatical meanings are different. the regularity of its expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators, with the help of which they are realized in different words (for example, the ending -ы, -and in the genitive case of the singular for feminine nouns).

3) by the nature of generalization and abstraction:

If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical meaning arises as generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although behind grammatical abstraction there are also general properties and signs of things and phenomena (the division in the Russian and Belarusian languages ​​of the verb tense into the past, present and future corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future).

4) features of the attitude to thinking and the structure of the language:

If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of a language and, as part of specific phrases, express thoughts, knowledge, ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organization of thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralinguistic nature.

Grammatical form- this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings (gender, number, case, etc.). The grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.

Paradigm (from Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words.

The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence of a stable, invariant part of the word (the stem root) and its changing part (inflection, less often a suffix).

Morphological paradigms are divided into big and small, as well as on complete and incomplete. Complete paradigm includes a set all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms of the word, in an incomplete paradigm, some forms of the word are not formed. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in Russian includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the gender paradigm, the number paradigm, the paradigm of full and short forms, the paradigm of degrees of comparison. Big Paradigms include all meanings of the word, while small - only part of the values.

30. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. Means of formation of synthetic and analytical forms. Mixed word forms

Grammatical meanings can be expressed both within a word - this affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetitions and intonation, and outside it is intonation, ways

function words and word order. The first series of methods is called synthetic, second -

analytical.

1) synthetic ways:

a) affixation:

The affixing method is attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words, serving to express grammatical meanings. So, many grammatical meanings of the Russian verb (person, gender, number, time) are expressed by endings and the suffix -l-: l, work-l-a, work-l-o, work-l-and.

The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed by a zero affix, for example, zero ending in words house, city, forest, garden, student, etc. Zero exponent in grammar has the same formal force as positive exponents. In the system of grammatical forms, he is opposed to the presence of formal indicators, thereby acquiring its grammatical meaning in grammatical oppositions. In the examples given, zero inflection expresses the meanings of the nominative case, singular and masculine in nouns, that is, zero expresses three grammatical meanings at once. The zero grammatical indicator is also present in syntactic constructions. For example, in expressions like Table - furniture, Roses - flowers.

b) alternation of sounds in the root:

Grammatical meanings can also be expressed by the alternation of sounds in the root, which are sometimes called internal inflection. Such alternations of sounds are not due to their phonetic position. At the same time, not every alternation of sounds in the root, not due to their phonetic position, is grammatically significant. In the Russian language there is a mass of so-called historical, or traditional, alternations, which in the modern language are not determined by a phonetic position. They are called historical because they took place in a particular historical period in the development of the language and are not explained by its current state. These alternations do not in themselves express grammatical meanings, for example, stump - stump, day - day, sleep - sleep, run - run, bake - bake, dry - dry, etc., but only accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms , acting as mandatory by tradition.

c) accent:

One way of expressing grammatical meanings is stress. In Russian, this method can be observed when expressing the grammatical meaning of the perfect and imperfect aspects in verbs: cut - cut, pour - pour, take out - take out, cut - cut, pour out - pour out, etc. This method is important in Russian with some nouns: walls - walls, pipes - pipes, houses - houses, cities - cities, sails - sails, farms - farms, etc. In English, a verb and a noun can differ only in the place of stress in the word, for example: progréss - progress, progress - progress, import - import, ímport - import, etc. In different languages, the grammatical way of stress plays a different role, which depends on the type and type of stress in the language. In languages ​​with a fixed monoplace stress, oppositions like the above-mentioned Russian pairs of words are impossible.

d) suppletivism:

In some cases, to express grammatical meanings, one has to use word forms derived from other roots. A similar expression of grammatical meanings using other roots is called suppletivism, and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, the suppletive way of expressing grammatical meanings is considered unproductive. In a suppletive way, for example, one expresses grammatical meaning of indirect cases of personal pronouns(I - me, you - you, he - them, we - us), the plural meaning of some nouns (child - children, person - people), the grammatical meaning of the perfect form of a number of verbs (take - take, speak - say, seek - find), the value of the comparative degree of individual adjectives (good - better, bad - worse).

e) repetitions, or reduplications:

Consist in full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, which is related to the expression of grammatical meaning. Repetitions can be carried out without changing the sound composition of the word or with a partial change in it. In a number of languages, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in Chinese, Malay, Korean, Armenian and other languages: Chinese zhen - man, zhen-zhen - people, xing - star, xing-sing - stars; Malay orang - person, orang-orang - people; Korean saram - person, saram-saram - each of the people; Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - many regiments. In Russian, repetitions are used as means of enhancing the intensity of an action or feature, as well as duration, repetition of action: yes-yes, no-no, barely, a little bit, kind-kind, big-big, thought-thought, high-high, walk-walk, ask-beg.

f) addition:

The way in which words are formed the pivot (last) component is equal to the whole word, a previous to him a component (or components) is clean base. The composition of the word-formant in pure addition includes: a) an interfix indicating the connection of the components compound word and signaling the loss of the morphological significance of the previous component; b) fixed order of components; c) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component: primary source, forest-steppe, wear-resistant, and half-turn. Interfix can be zero: tsar cannon, plunder army (colloquial)

2) analytical methods:

a) intonation:

Intonation can serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings. In some languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese, intonation is used to distinguishing both the lexical meanings of the word and the grammatical. In Russian, intonation is also, in some cases, one of the means of expressing grammatical meanings in a word. For example, a verb in the form of an infinitive can act in the imperative mood, being pronounced with the intonation of a command, an order, a call to action: stand up! sit down! lie down! stand! shut up! run! close! etc. In Russian, intonation as a means of expressing grammatical meanings is widely used in a sentence. Narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences differ in the type of intonation, with the help of pauses within the sentence they show the grouping of sentence members, highlight introductory words and expressions, and can distinguish between simple and complex sentences.

b) service words:

Service words are lexically dependent words that do not have a nominative function in the language (they do not name objects, properties or relations) and express various semantic-syntactic

relationships between words, sentences and parts of sentences.

c) word order:

In languages ​​that do not have inflection forms (or rarely use them) and the word usually retains the same form, word order is very an important way of expressing grammatical meanings. For example, in English, a sentence has a very rigid word order, in which the subject is in the first place, the predicate is in the second, the object is in the third, the circumstance is in the fourth, that is, the place where the word in the statement is, turns out to be a factor expressing its grammatical meaning.

The sentences the man killed a tiger - the man killed the tiger and the tiger killed the man - the tiger killed the man get the opposite meaning by changing the places of the subject and object. Word order also plays an important grammatical role in languages ​​such as Chinese, French, and Bulgarian.

The Russian language differs from other languages ​​in its relatively free word order. But in some cases, word order becomes the only means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. So, in the sentences “Mother loves daughter” and “Daughter loves mother”, “Being determines consciousness” and “Consciousness determines being”, “The tram touched the car and the Car touched the tram”, the meaning of the nominative case is created by putting the noun in the first place; in the first place, the noun plays the role of the subject, in the last - the object.

Mixed or hybrid, the type of expression of grammatical meanings combines the features of synthetic and analytical types. So, in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition (by car, in the house, in the forest, about the earth, about the accident, etc.).

Many languages ​​combine both types of expression of grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical, but one of the types always turns out to be predominant. The predominantly synthetic languages ​​include Latin, Sanskrit, Russian, Lithuanian, German and other languages. In languages ​​of predominantly analytical structure - English, French, Spanish, Danish, Modern Greek, Bulgarian and others - the analytical type of expression of grammatical meanings prevails, the main way of which is function words.

The subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (WE ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS IS TO ARINA AND NOT TO US)

Morphology in translation from Greek means literally "the doctrine of form." This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of a word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The well-known linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.

A word as a grammatical unit is a set of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text, it appears in a specific word form. Yes, the word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms of the singular and 6 case forms of the plural. In the examples I was given an interesting book and I was given interesting books the selected word forms differ in particular grammatical meanings - unit values. and many others. numbers, while the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. lexeme is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning. The whole set of word forms included in this lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text, constructing an utterance, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the features of the functioning of grammatical forms, have an idea about the semantic potential grammatical categories different parts of speech.

That's why subject of morphology is the doctrine of parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, species, mood, tense, person, pledge),vocabulary system.

Morphology tasks.

Determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

Determine which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

correlate them with the characteristics of the objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal tools involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (SRYa under the editorship of Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

Proper grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> Full description grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - the study of grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Gram.variants in various spheres of life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (to teach to speak or write essays).

· Functional aspect. Describes how the language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder of Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

grammatical (morphological) form,

the grammatical meaning

The morphological paradigm

parts of speech.

Grammar is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number words and necessarily expressed formally: either by separate elements, or with the help of other words in the sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

1. From the question, we can determine that this word form names an object in general.

2. From the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. Interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, this is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one subject is meant.

6. Allows phrases like a white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)

7. Allows the phrase house that I built, and does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimate)

8. Allows a phrase white house, and does not allow white house or house on the mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows a phrase yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows a phrase admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental)

11. Allows a phrase

a wonderful house, but does not allow a wonderful house

(subordinating creative)

Grammatical meanings are additional in relation to lexical ones, but due to enviable regularity they can be comprehended separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The totality of all possible word forms of one particular word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, oh brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, oh brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of the same type of means, where it is opposed to other forms. (unit and plural, for example)

Grammatical form- the unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

grammatical meaning- generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of the grammatical category opposed to each other. In the word forms of the changed parts of speech, both the general grammatical meaning and particular morphological meanings are expressed. For unchangeable parts of speech, only a common grammatical (categorical) meaning is characteristic. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), sign of sign ( hospitable in Moscow). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm the totality of all forms of the modified word is called. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech is made up of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes the number and case paradigms.

The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms according to their grammatical content are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. It is this definition of the grammatical category that is accepted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of the grammatical category. This is a closed system.

Need to distinguish inflectional and non-inflective (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflective:

This is necessary in order to be able to correctly form forms. So, for example, the form I will defend formed from a perfective verb protect, the form I protect - from imperfective verb protect.

Grammar category- a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposed rows. subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed system of inflection, it is fundamental to distinguish between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their distinction. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. The grammatical category of animateness/inanimateness.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The core nature of this group of words is provided by unique semantic features: any reality can be a denotation of a noun. For example:

Material objects: house, pen.

・Signs: blue.

Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Traffic: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: conformity.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical object (objectivity), performs the syntactic function of the subject and object, and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech that designates an object and expresses this meaning in inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and non-inflective categories of gender and animation-inanimateness. The noun always answers the question who? what? You need to ask a question to the initial form of the word.

Initial the form of the noun is the form of the nominative case, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have the form of units. hours - form them. case pl. numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition: performance of figure skaters, Pushkin's fairy tales.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be determined by an adjective and a participle: a cold winter, a past holiday.

Division of nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what subject this noun denotes - living beings or objects inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animateness-inanimateness with the concept of living-inanimate. So, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm- nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of dead people - dead man, deceased- are considered animate, and only a noun dead body- inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animated nouns usually refer to living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specifics of declension and represent a special category in relation to the gender category, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the named creatures:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine and the singular) coincides with the genitive form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) - students, student, horses.
No one? (rod.pad.) - students, student, horses. Who am I waiting for? Apprentice.

Animated nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of such objects that for some reason seem to be alive. For example: dressing up dolls, flying a kite.

Inanimate:

Inanimate nouns have the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) the same as the nominative form.
See what? (win.fall.) - airplanes, airplane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (im. pad.) - airplanes, airplane.

inanimate nouns used in figurative meaning, get the value of a person and become animated: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numbers ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate ones: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial).

Conclusion: in order to correctly determine the animate / inanimate noun, the word must be considered in the context of the sentence.

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. The grammatical category of the number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexico-grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

Allocate such lexical and grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, real, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories- semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of the meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of the number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many others. number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dismembered set of objects. This is an inflectional category covering all inflected nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a nuclear group. Abstract, material and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in terms of the category of number.

Pay attention: lexically non-identical forms of number: choice, elections. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heaven

· pain / pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a single number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, cereals, years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “Especially brightly negative, devoid of a direct relationship to number, account, the function of the singular appears in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general for designations abstract concepts" (military, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses closed) (People walked with a handkerchief tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite items (wood firewood, sledge, sled);

3. Mass, substance, material in its totality (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residue from some process: bran, sawdust, leftovers;

6. Places and localities (compacts, in the heads, settlements, as well as proper names of Bronnitsy);

7. Time interval (day, twilight, holidays);

8. A complex action, a state consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, tricks);

9. Games (hide and seek, blunders, catch-ups);

10. Ceremonies and holidays (christenings, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (to live in the dark, to be strong, in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (envy is taken, for joy).

All nouns are singular. h. have the category of gender, i.e. belong to one of 3 genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -а, -я in the form im. p. units numbers are usually feminine (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If a initial form has the ending -o, -e, then the noun belongs to the middle gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domishche (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of m. kind).

A small group of words belongs to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have the singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sled, gate, ink) are not distributed by genus.

generic couple

generic couple- this is a paired opposition of nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of the biological sex.

Pairs are distinguished:

1. suppletive tribal couples (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional- having a common basis and differing in endings (spouse - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexander).

If the words included in the generic pair are the names of animals, then the type of animals can be indicated both by the word m. of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys), and by the word f. genus (cats, sheep, goats).

Nouns generic

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), nouns are also distinguished generic, by meaning they correspond to both male and female persons, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech, you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech, for the speech characterization of characters, when referring to a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. A pair emerged in professional use nurse- medical brother.

generic variants

Many nouns are used in SRY both in the form of m and in the form of f. kind.

-​ aviary - aviary (more common form 1);

- giraffe - giraffe (more common form 1);

- clip - clip (literary is 1 form);

- reprise - reprise (more commonly used form 2).

So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side adjoins word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other hand, to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.