Artificial languages ​​and attempts to create them. The language of logic

There are more than 7 thousand languages ​​on planet Earth. Apparently given quantity it was not enough for people - after all, about a thousand more artificial ones were developed by linguists!

The history of their creation began in the XVII-XVIII centuries, when Latin gradually began to lose its popularity. Most of the auxiliary languages ​​were invented on the basis of living and other artificial ones, and, moreover, with a specific purpose (for communication in the fictional world of books and films, international communication, overcoming the language barrier, and so on).

In this compilation, we have collected the ten most popular artificial languages ​​that are interesting to learn more about.

10 Lingua franca nova

This language is easily understood by those who speak Romance languages ​​such as French, Portuguese, Italian or Spanish. After all, it was from these languages, including the medieval dialect "lingua franca", that he was formed by psychologist George Bure from Pennsylvania. The author wanted to create a convenient international language that does not require a long study of the rules and is suitable for communication without difficulties. At the moment, about a thousand people use it on their Facebook profiles.

The language has a lightweight grammar, 22 letters in the alphabet, a vocabulary of modern Romance languages ​​and a clear word order in a sentence. But there is no grammatical gender and plural in this language!

9 Novial

This language was created by the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen on the basis of another artificial language, Ido (but later completely "departed" from it). The novial was introduced in 1928, but was largely abandoned after Jespersen's death. A surge of interest in it would have been noticed in the 1990s due to the Internet wave that took over the whole world. Now the language is undergoing evolution under the leadership of the Novial 98 project, which aims to revive and improve this language.

Novial is easiest for native English speakers to learn, as sentence structure, syntax, and vocabulary strongly resemble English. French, German and Scandinavian languages ​​also had a great influence on words.

8 Ido

The word "ido" in Esperanto means "descendant", and this perfectly characterizes the features of this language. It evolved from the most widespread artificial language, Esperanto, and represents its improved version. Ido was created in 1907 by the Esperanto Louis de Beaufron and the mathematician Louis Couture. It is established that 500 thousand people speak this language.

Ido uses 26 letters of the alphabet, grammar and spelling are thought out so that it is easy for anyone to learn the language, and practical use would not cause difficulties. The vocabulary was greatly influenced by words from French, German, English, Russian, Italian, French and Spanish.

7 Ro

In the early 20th century, this language was developed by the priest Edward Powell Foster of Ohio. The author described the language as a picture, which gives a hint for understanding the word. Rho is built on a categorical system, for example, the word "red" means "bofoc", "orange" means "bofod", and "color" means "bofo".

Rho, which has also been called "the language of the philosophers", contains only 5 vowels in the entire alphabet of 26 letters. Unfortunately, because of the difficulty in listening to the language, Ro was criticized. After all, two different words could differ in only one letter!

6 Slovio

Slovak Mark Guchko in 1999 began work on his own language called Slovio, combining the artificial language Esperanto and living Slavic languages. The author's goal was to simplify communication between those who speak the languages ​​of the Slavic group as native, and those who find it difficult to learn them as a foreign language.

Guchko received a language that has simplified spelling, grammar and articulation. Most of the words in this language (verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are defined by endings. At the moment, the Slovio language is understood by about 400 million people in the world, and the work on the development of the language was completed by the author in 2010.

5 Slovianski

Due to territorial division and the influence of other languages, most people who speak languages ​​of the Slavic group, but live in different countries do not understand each other. Slovianski is only a semi-artificial language designed to allow Slavs to fully communicate.

The language was coined in 2006 by a group of activists and is based on living Slavic languages. You can write on it both in Cyrillic and in Latin letters. The grammar is very simple, there are few exceptions in the language.

4 Sambahsa

The name sambahsa comes from the Malay words "sama" ("same") and "bahsa" ("language"). The language was created relatively recently, in 2007, by the French doctor Oliver Simon. Sambahsa is based on English, French and includes some words from other less popular languages.

The language has a simplified grammar, but at the same time an extensive vocabulary with a huge online library of reference materials. The sambax development project is open online and available to everyone.

3 Lingua de planeta

The project to create this language was launched in St. Petersburg in 2006 by psychologist Dmitry Ivanov. He, along with a development company, wanted to create a universal language that would be communicated anywhere in the world. In his opinion, the world is already moving into the state of a global community and needs a single language.

The team decided not to create new languages, but to combine the most popular in the world. The base version, released in 2010, was based on ten of the world's most widely spoken languages ​​- English, Chinese, Russian, French, Hindi, German, Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Portuguese.

2 Universalglot

A project for an international language "universalglot" was released in 1868 by the French linguist Jean Pirro. The language was not very popular before the age of the Internet. Now he is slowly in demand, after the publications of Jean Pirro were published in the public domain on the web.

Universalglot is based on Latin and has a rich vocabulary. The alphabet uses Latin letters except for "Y" and "W". Letters whose pronunciation differs from English are pronounced in Italian or in Spanish. The language has a well-developed structure, as well as a grammar systematized following the example of the Germanic and Romance languages.

1 Esperanto

The name of this language roughly translates as "the one who hopes", and among the artificial languages, it is considered the most popular. Esperanto is spoken by approximately 2 million people all over the world, millions of pages on the Internet, books, publications are written in it ... Most of all it is used in Europe, South America, East Asia and parts of North Africa.

For almost a decade (1870-1880s), Warsaw-based Esperanto author Ludwik Zamenhof, an ophthalmologist, spent developing a universal language that could be mastered by people anywhere in the world. In 1887, he introduced a language whose system was designed to allow people to communicate freely around the world without losing their native language and culture.

Currently, Esperanto is native to 2,000 people, and in 2016 it became known that some schools in New York even added it to the school curriculum. It is really possible to learn this language on your own - there are a lot of learning materials on the net.

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These languages ​​were created by linguists and gave people of different nationalities the opportunity to understand each other. Let not all of them have become popular, but many have found their "carriers".

Do you think it is necessary artificial languages? Would you like to learn this yourself?

Esperanto is the world's most widely spoken artificial language. Now, according to various sources, it is spoken by several hundred thousand to a million people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887 and got its name from the author's pseudonym (Lazar signed in the textbook as Esperanto - "hoping").

Like other artificial languages ​​(more precisely, most of them), it has an easy-to-learn grammar. The alphabet has 28 letters (23 consonants, 5 vowels) and is based on Latin. Some enthusiasts have even nicknamed it "Latin of the new millennium".

Most Esperanto words are made up of Romance and Germanic roots: roots are borrowed from French, English, German and Italian. There are also many international words in the language that are understandable without translation. 29 words are borrowed from Russian, among them the word "borscht".

Harry Harrison spoke Esperanto and actively promoted this language in his novels. Thus, in the cycle "The World of the Steel Rat", the inhabitants of the Galaxy speak mainly Esperanto. About 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, and four radio stations broadcast.

Interlingua (occidental)

Appeared in 1922 in Europe thanks to the linguist Edgar de Wahl. In many ways it is similar to Esperanto: it has a lot of borrowings from the Romano-Germanic languages ​​and the same language construction system as in them. The original name of the language - Occidental - became a hindrance to its spread after the Second World War. In the countries of the communist bloc, it was believed that after the pro-Western language, anti-revolutionary ideas would also creep in. Then Occidental became known as Interlingua.

Volapyuk

In 1879, God appeared to the author of the language, priest Johann Martin Schleyer, in a dream and ordered him to invent and write down his own language, which Schleyer immediately took up. All night he wrote down his grammar, word meanings, sentences, and then whole verses. The German language became the basis of Volapuk, Schleyer boldly deformed the words of English and French, reshaping them in a new way. In Volapuk, for some reason, he decided to abandon the sound [p]. More precisely, not even for some reason, but for a very specific one: it seemed to him that this sound would cause difficulties for the Chinese who decided to learn volapuk.

At first, the language became quite popular due to its simplicity. It published 25 magazines, wrote 316 textbooks in 25 languages, and operated 283 clubs. For one person, Volapuk even became their native language - this is the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Conn (unfortunately, nothing is known about her life).

Gradually, interest in the language began to decline, but in 1931 a group of Volapukists led by the scientist Ary de Jong reformed the language, and for some time its popularity increased again. But then the Nazis came to power and banned everything in Europe foreign languages. Today, there are only two or three dozen people in the world who speak Volapuk. However, Wikipedia has a section written in Volapük.

Loglan

Linguist John Cooke coined loglan (log ical lan guage) in 1955 as an alternative to conventional, "imperfect" languages. And suddenly, the language, which was created mostly for scientific research, found its fans. Still would! After all, it does not have such concepts as tense for verbs or number for nouns. It is assumed that this is already clear to the interlocutors from the context of the conversation. But there are a lot of interjections in the language, with the help of which it is supposed to express shades of emotions. There are about twenty of them, and they represent a spectrum of feelings from love to hate. And they sound like this: wow! (love), wow! (surprise), wow! (happiness), etc. And there are no commas or other punctuation marks. Miracle, not language!

Designed by Ohio priest Edward Foster. Immediately after its appearance, the language became very popular: in the first years, even two newspapers were published, manuals and dictionaries were published. Foster was successful in obtaining a grant from the International Auxiliary Language Association. The main feature of the ro language is that words were built according to a categorical scheme. For example, red is bofoc, yellow is bofof, orange is bofod. The disadvantage of such a system: it is almost impossible to distinguish words by ear. This is probably why the language did not arouse much interest among the public.

Solresol

Appeared in 1817. French creator Jean-Francois Sudre believed that everything in the world can be explained with the help of notes. Language, in fact, consists of them. It has a total of 2660 words: 7 one-syllable, 49 two-syllable, 336 three-syllable and 2268 four-syllable. To denote opposite concepts, the mirroring of the word is used: fall - good, lafa - bad.

Solresol had several scripts. It was possible to communicate on it by writing down the notes on the stave, the names of the notes, the first seven digits of the Arabic script, the first letters of the Latin alphabet, special shorthand symbols and the colors of the rainbow. Accordingly, it was possible to communicate in Solresol not only by pronunciation of words, but also by playing a musical instrument or singing, as well as in the language of the deaf and dumb.

The language found a lot of fans, including among famous people. Famous followers of Solresol were, for example, Victor Hugo, Alexander Humboldt, Lamartine.

Ithkuil

A specially invented language to communicate on philosophical topics (however, this can just as well be done in any other language, it will still be incomprehensible!). The creation of the language took its author John Quijada almost 30 years (from 1978 to 2004), and even then he believes that he has not yet finished with a vocabulary set. By the way, there are 81 cases in Ithkuil, and the meanings of words are transmitted using morphemes. Thus, a long thought can be conveyed very briefly. As if you wanted to archive the words.

tokipona

The simplest artificial language in the world was created in 2011 by Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa (real name, however, Christopher Richard). There are only 118 words in the tokipon vocabulary (each of which has several meanings), and it is generally assumed that speakers will understand what is being said from the very context of the conversation. The creator of the tokipona believes that he has come close to understanding the language of the future, which Tyler Durden spoke about in Fight Club.

Klingon

Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon by order of Paramount Pictures, it was supposed to be spoken by aliens in the Star Trek movie. They actually talked. But besides them, numerous fans of the series have adopted the language, and currently there is the Klingon Language Institute in the USA, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics, there is Klingon-language rock music (for example, the Stokovor band performs its death metal songs exclusively in Klingon) , theatrical productions, and even a section of the Google search engine.

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) None of the artificial languages ​​has become a full-fledged means of communication. (2) The fact is that language is not only and not so much a means of communication: the first purpose of language is to store information accumulated by mankind about the world and man. (3) ____ this is what allows the language to successfully perform its functions; the absence of such a basis prevented artificial languages ​​from fulfilling the tasks assigned to them.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. The lack of the ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man prevented artificial languages ​​from becoming a full-fledged means of communication.

2. None of the artificial languages ​​became a full-fledged means of communication, because they did not fulfill the tasks assigned to them.

3. Language is not only and not so much a means of communication, but also a keeper of information accumulated by mankind about the world and man.

4. Artificial languages ​​are not a full-fledged means of communication, since they do not fulfill the main purpose of any language - to store information about the world and a person.

5. The ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man allows the language to successfully perform its functions.

2

Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write out this word.

1. Probably

3. Fortunately,

5. Hardly

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word MEAN. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

TOOL, -a, cf.

1. Reception, method of action to achieve something. Simple s. To achieve by all means. All means are good for someone. (Someone does not disdain anything to achieve their goals, success; neod.).

2. A tool (object, set of devices) for the implementation of some kind of. activities. Means of transport. Remedies.

3. A medicine, an item necessary for treatment, as well as an item of cosmetics (in 2 values). Medicines. C. for cough. Dressings. Cosmetics.

4. Mn. Money, loans. Working capital. Set aside funds for something.

5. Mn. Capital, state. Man of means. Living beyond one's means (spending more than one's income, fortune) allows.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

accountants

plum

repeated

seal

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. One of my uncles liked to READ verses, that is, to read them in a singsong voice.

2. What a pity that modern schoolchildren do not feel the BENEFITS of the book: it is a true friend, it is a beacon in doubt, it is an anchor in a storm of passions!

3. In the Renaissance, a new GLASS material was found, crystal clear and perfect in terms of plasticity.

4. Listening to his HARD but still articulate speech, thinned out with jokes, was creepy.

5. He was one of those limited people who are especially pleasant precisely because of their LIMITEDness.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

pair of stockings

DESIRED variant

in 150 meters

sent the magazine with a BANDEROL

LONGER than a pencil

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed unchecked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

reg... kitten

time ... to get involved

magical

agreement

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

n...eating, pr...parents

pr ... hail, pr ... be able

ra...ghosting, nor...fall

to...bite, o...row

ra ... be generous, and ... support

10

Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

suede

magnesium...

toy...

assign...

harden...

11

Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.

hear... my

checked ... who

stand ... sh

parted ... sh

naveva... my

12

Identify the sentence in which NOT is written SEPARATELY with the word. Open the brackets and write out this word.

1. A person who is indifferent to his native nature (not) can love his homeland.

2. (Un)paved street went straight into the field.

3. Air is (not) movable.

4. In the morning there is (un)experienced heat.

5. A person with an indignant conscience becomes stronger (un)bad.

13

Define a sentence in which both underlined words are written THROUGH THE HYPHEN. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. In the heat, all living things hid WHERE (THAT) and are afraid to raise their heads, THAT (WOULD) not burn their hair and burn their nose.

2. Pavel recognized the very first, (IN)CHILDLY naive buildings in the park: a monk's hut, an arbor (IN) THE FORM of a tower.

3. Everything was good and HOW (THAT) especially, not (FOR) ALWAYS clear and close.

4. Among the shrubs, you can still see (SOME) ANY representatives of the flora, for example, wild rose, lemongrass, and ALSO (SAME) viburnum.

5. Now between the small surviving islands of the forest on the slopes of the hill RARE (RARE), but EVERYTHING (SAME) juniper bushes grow.

14

Indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) one letter N is written.

I remember both the evening pale blue fogs, and the night ones, pierced by (1) lu (2) light (they seem silver (3)), and morning (4) s, pale pink, colored (5) dawn.

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. Frost taps on the trunks and branches of thick trees and light silver hoarfrost falls in flakes.

2. Among meadow grasses there are also anise and chamomile and St. John's wort and yarrow.

3. In Japan, evergreen trees and shrubs grow with hard and shiny leaves - camellias.

4. The day was perfectly clear, quiet and hot.

5. The sun stood directly above the forest and incessantly baked his back and head.

16

Waves (1) running ashore (2) fell heavily (3) breaking into spray (4) hissed evil (5) rolling down from the stones.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

1) Yazykov, who possessed (1) according to Pushkin (2) an amazing fire of language, in one of his poems he magnificently described the Volga and the Oka.

2) And when he told me this story, then (3) according to him (4) everything turned out completely differently.

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

Not the smart one (1) who knows how to distinguish good from evil (2) but the one (3) who knows how to choose the lesser of two evils.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) in the sentence should be commas.

It was a dazzling mid-March morning (1) when the snow settled everywhere to the ground (2) and compacted in the fields (3) and only the roadsides were already cut by the sun.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the incorrectly used word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

We wished the organizers to gather such evenings more often.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) How little Kolya remembered himself in the war, he was always hungry. (2) He could not get used to, adjust to hunger, and his sunken eyes gleamed angrily, constantly looking for prey. (H) Black-haired, uncut, disheveled, with protruding ribs, he looked like a small, emaciated wolf cub. (4) At home they gave him a chatter and bread. (5) Mother added brooms to the flour - threshed panicles of millet, and the bread was heavy, viscous; he smelled of damp clay. (6) But the hungry boy ate this bread instantly.

(7) Once in the entire war, he ate plenty of bread. (8) And the bread was not from brooms - real. (9) Our machine gunners brought him with them. (10) They entered the hut at night. (11) Little Kolya hid in a corner and cautiously watched the aliens. (12) And then a high-cheeked soldier, limping on his left leg, noticed him. (13) He beckoned Kolya to him:

(14) - Hey, master, come here. (15) Do you want some bread?

(16) The boy wanted to shout: “I want! Want!" (17) But a lump rolled up in my throat. (18) He could not utter a word and silently swallowed saliva.

(19) - You probably had a hearty dinner?

(20) Kolya blinked in confusion, and the big-cheeked soldier untied the bag and thrust a large piece of bread into his hand. (21) The hungry boy felt dizzy. (22) He climbed onto the stove, closed his eyes and clung to the bread. (23) He breathed bread, warmed it with his hands and cheek. (24) He bit off the crumb, then gnawed the crust with cheerful excitement. (25) The late satiety sweetly spilled over the body. (26) He fell asleep. (27) And all night he dreamed of bread.

(28) ... When the war was coming to an end, the mother sowed a strip of wheat in the garden. (29) Soon timid shoots sprouted from the ground. (30) Then the ears appeared - big-eyed, bluish, slightly misted. (31) Then the strip became straw.

(32) When the first harvest was harvested, the grandmother, in joy, baked two sunflower-sized cakes. (33) The cakes were fragrant, ruddy. (34) Grandmother smeared them with an oil feather and sprinkled with salt, large, like crushed glass. (35) Heat came from the cakes, and they glowed like two small salted suns.

(36) The boy was sitting in front of the table, and his sunken eyes were rooted to the cakes. (37) He was waiting to be treated, and inhaled the warm spirit of baked bread. (38) He could hardly restrain himself so as not to reach out and take an enviable treat without asking. (39) Finally, the grandmother came up to him and said:

(40) - Taste, granddaughter, my cake.

(41) Some kind of hidden spring worked inside - the hands instantly rushed to the cake, the fingers squeezed it tightly and pulled it into the mouth.

(42) The crust burned the lips, the salt pinched the tongue, the nostrils swelled, afraid to miss a bit of the delicious smell. (43) Korzh soon died ... (44) Kolya sighed heavily. (45) And the second cake, ruddy, whole and probably even more delicious, lay on the table and smiled invitingly with all his face.

(46) - Take this cake to your grandfather in the apiary, - said the grandmother.

(48) Grandmother wrapped the hot cake in burdock and handed it to Kolya.

(49) Grandfather was delighted. (50) He turned the cake in his hands and sniffed. (51) And Kolya stood in front of the old man, absorbed in the hope that his grandfather would break the cake in half.

(52) But the grandfather did not eat the present, but took it to the hut. (53) What a greedy grandfather! (54) Completely wild with his bees. (55) He specially hid the cake so as not to share it and then calmly chew it, dipping it in sticky buckwheat honey.

(56) Kolya was about to leave. (57) At the last minute, when grandfather held out a knapsack with dirty laundry- let the grandmother stretch! - something trembled in Kolya, and he almost asked his grandfather for a piece of cake. (58) But he managed to overcome a momentary weakness. (59) And he was silent.

(60) He walked slowly, waving a knapsack, and thought that when the war ended, there would be a lot of bread in the house and he would eat cakes in the morning, afternoon and evening. (61) And now the grandfather is eating the cake - he, Kolya, has already eaten his own.

(62) At home, he shoved a knapsack to his grandmother and grunted:

(63) - Grandfather ordered to stretch!

(64) Grandmother silently began to lay out grandfather's underwear on the bench. (65) At the bottom of the knapsack was a clean rag tied in a knot. (66) Grandmother slowly untied the knot with naughty fingers. (67) There was a cake in a rag. (68) She didn't say anything. (69) She put an unexpected present in front of her grandson.

The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest of artificial languages. There are only about 120 roots in his lexicon.

Artificial languages ​​are those languages ​​in which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar have been developed for specific purposes. These are fake languages ​​invented by one person. Today there are more than a thousand of them, and new ones are constantly being created. The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication, giving realism fiction and fictional worlds in cinema, linguistic experiments, language games, the development of the Internet and the creation of languages ​​that are understandable to all peoples of the planet.

1. Grammelot. The style of language used in the theater of humor and satire. This is a kind of gibberish with onomatopoeic elements along with pantomime and mimicry. Grammelot was popularized by the Italian playwright Dario Fo.
2. Esperanto. The most widely used artificial language in the world. Today it is fluently spoken by more than 100,000 people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar Zamenhof in 1887. Esperanto has a simple grammar. Its alphabet has 28 letters and is built on the basis of Latin. Most of the vocabulary is taken from the Romance and Germanic languages. There are also many international words in Esperanto that are understandable without translation. 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, 4 radio stations broadcast, there are articles on Wikipedia.
3. Vendergood. It was developed by teenage prodigy William James Sidis based on Romance languages. Sidis knew about 40 languages ​​and freely translated from one to another. Sidis created vendergood in a book entitled The Book of Vendergood which he wrote at the age of 8. The language is built on Latin and Greek vocabulary and grammar, and it also contains elements of German, French and other Romance languages.
4. Aui. Created by John Weilgarth. It is based on the philosophical concept of the formation of all concepts from a small number of elementary concepts, moreover, an elementary concept of language. Its very name translates as "the language of the cosmos." Each sound in AUI is associated with the concept it denotes. All vocabulary is built by combining basic concepts.
5. Nadsat. Fictional language spoken by teenagers in Anthony Burgess' novel A Clockwork Orange. In nadsat, part of the vocabulary is English, part is fictional, created by the author on the basis of the Russian language. Most often, Russian equivalents are written in Latin and have some distortion. The grammar system is based on English language. In addition, there are slang from French and German, Malay and Gypsy, Cockney, and words invented by Burgess himself.
6. LitSpeak. Used in online games, chats, sms and other electronic communication channels. The language was created as a cipher that could be read by users who knew the key to it. In litespeak, numbers and symbols replace letters. It also makes deliberate mistakes, there are phonetic variations of words and neologisms.
7. Talossan. An artificial language created in 1980 by the 14-year-old founder of the virtual microstate of Thalos, Robert Ben-Madison. Talossan is built on the basis of the languages ​​of the Romance group.
8. Klingon. Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon for Paramount Pictures for the TV series and later the Star Trek movies. It is spoken by aliens. In addition to them, the language was adopted by numerous fans of the series. Currently, there is the Klingon Language Institute in the United States, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics in Klingon.
9. Tokipona. The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest of artificial languages. There are only about 120 roots in his lexicon. Names of animals and plants are missing. But in the unofficial dictionary there are designations for countries, nations, languages ​​that are written with a capital letter. Everything is simplified in tokipon: vocabulary, phonology, grammar and syntax.
10. Na'vi. This fictional language was developed by linguist Paul Frommer for James Cameron Productions for the film Avatar. According to the scenario, the native speakers of the Na'vi language are the inhabitants of the planet Pandora. Today there are more than 1000 words in his dictionary. Work on the Na'vi language continues. By the way, in its grammatical and lexical structure, Na’vi resembles the Papuan and Australian languages.

“Artificial language - 1. Any auxiliary language, as opposed to natural, or proper language. 2. A sign system intended for use in those areas of communication where the functioning of a natural living language is less effective or impossible” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 60].

“Natural language - 1. Language in the proper sense, human language as a natural tool of thought and a means of communication, in contrast to its artificially created substitutes. 2. Human language that arose naturally and is used in social practice” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 45]. “A substitute is the same as a substitute” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 182].

The first attempts to invent artificial languages ​​were made in the second half of the 17th century. The main directions in the creation of artificial languages ​​in the 17th-19th centuries were logical and empirical.

The logical direction was based on rationalistic philosophy, which criticized natural language for its inconsistency. According to the English philosophers J. Dalgarno and J. Wilkins (Wilkins - 1614-1672), there is a direct correspondence between the concept and the word, so it is possible to create a language in which the concepts and the words they denote would line up logically. According to Wilkins' theory, the division into parts of speech is not necessary for the language. Wilkins (Wilkins) proposed words as names, and verbs (i.e., words denoting properties and actions) could be formed from names using regular word-building means.

The empirical direction focused on natural language. Representatives of this trend proposed to improve any existing natural language. So, F. Labbe proposed the Latin language as the basis, I. Schipfer - French, Yuri Kryzhanich (1617-1674) - the pan-Slavic language.

But they looked at the created languages ​​as curiosities, did not see them as practical application. The most practical was the language created by the priest (German pastor) Johann Schleyer in 1879 and called "volapuk" - volapuk - a distorted form English words. Language was a means of communication for several dozen people. The language did not last long. According to the researchers, the reasons for the fall of the language were the isolation of the language system, the position of Schleyer himself, who did not allow anything to be changed in the language, and discord between distributors.

One of the most famous artificial languages ​​is Esperanto (Esperanto - "hoping"), created in 1887 by the Warsaw physician Ludwig Zamenhof. To create the language, L. Zamenhof used Polish, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Esperanto has no nationality. Seven million people use this language for practical purposes. More than 100 magazines, about 7,000 books, textbooks are published in Esperanto.

Esperanto uses elements of English and German. Elements Latin, Slavic languages ​​occupy an insignificant place in the structure.

L. Zamenhof considered his goal to be the creation of an international easy language of communication. Esperanto is characterized by the absence of homonymy, the unity of writing and pronunciation, phonetic writing, the unity of the root, regardless of position. Since the stress is always the first syllable, and the words are mostly disyllabic, speech is monotonous. There are affixes in the language, but their number is small, so the language has little emotionality, it is not expressive, the semantics of the phrase is transmitted approximately.

Despite its negative qualities, the language has existed for more than a hundred years, a large amount of literature has been published in it, Esperanto circles and societies have been created in many countries, Esperanto congresses are held, but it has not become international. Esperanto is not a living language, it is monotonous, it is not expressive, it is not able to reflect all the situations in which a person finds himself.

In 1907, Louis de Beaufront created the IDO language on the basis of Esperanto, which is more logical and consistent. But this language did not become international.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, the LINCOS language (“linguistics of space”) was created. The creator of the language is the Dutch mathematician G. Freudenthal, who received for the monograph “LINKOS. Building a language for space communications” Nobel Prize. G. Freudenthal, with the help of light and sound signals going in a certain sequence, tries to state the laws of mathematics, biology, physics, morality, and ethics. Linkos is the first attempt to create a cosmic language for the exchange of information in extraterrestrial communication.

The phenomenon of an artificial language is a subject of debatable disagreement among linguists, sociolinguists, sociologists, ethnographers and many representatives of other branches of knowledge related to language.

So, M.I. Isaev opposes the term "artificial language". He writes in one of his works: “Artificial language” is a wrong term, or rather: Planned language.” M.I. Isaev writes: “The planned language (“artificial language”) is created for communication in the international arena. The term "planned language" was proposed by E. Wüster (1955). As for the name "artificial language", it is not acceptable, because suggests opposition to "natural language", which is actually not uncommon. At the same time, the last term ("natural language") is inadequate, because Language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one. It is not difficult to notice the desire of M.I. Isaev to emphasize the social nature of the language as a means of communication. But the situation with international languages, which has evolved over the centuries, indicates that there is still no “planned language” in the understanding of M.I. Isaeva: languages ​​designed to communicate in the international arena are not created, as the author points out, but are selected from existing national languages.

The problem of an artificial language exists at the present time, it is becoming more and more relevant with the expansion of the zones of influence of the Internet.

1. Dictionary types. The role of the dictionary in the work of a translator.

2. The problem of the origin of the language. Hypotheses. Stages of development. The role of dialects in the formation of the language.

The existing types of dictionaries are very diverse. This diversity is explained, first of all, by the complexity and multidimensionality of the very object of the lexicographic description, i.e. language. In addition, the numerous needs of society in obtaining a wide variety of information about the language also complicate and expand the repertoire of dictionaries.

Exist:

· transferable

· sensible

The most important type of a monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The first explanatory dictionary proper was the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", published in 1789-1794. and containing 43,257 words taken from modern secular and spiritual books.

The most important role in the history of Soviet lexicography was played by the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. Dictionary built on vocabulary works of art, journalism, scientific literature.

· dialect and regional dictionaries

The first dialect (regional) dictionaries of the Russian language began to be published in the middle of the 19th century. These were the "Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 18011 words (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 22895 words (1858). At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. A number of dictionaries of individual adverbs and dialects were published. In Soviet times, A. V. Mirtov’s “Don Dictionary” (1929), “A Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary ...” G. G. Melnichenko (1961), “Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data” (1967) and others were published. Currently, a lot of work is being done to compile the multi-volume Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects, which includes about 150 thousand words. folk words, unknown in

modern literary language (from 1965 to 1987, 23 issues were published - before Osset)

· slang dictionaries

· historical

The main historical dictionary of the Russian language was the three-volume "Materials for the Dictionary Old Russian language according to written monuments" by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), containing many words and about 120 thousand excerpts from the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XIV centuries (the last, reprint, edition was published in 1989). "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries". In 1988, the 14th edition (before Person) was published. Since 1984, the "Dictionary of the Russian Language of the XVIII century" began to be published under the editorship of Y. S. Sorokin. To date, prepared 5 issues (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989).

· neologisms

· etymological

In 1961, the "Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya was published, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, containing an etymological interpretation of commonly used words of the modern Russian literary language (3rd revised edition in 1975).

· winged expressions and many others

In 1890, S.V. Maksimov's collection "Winged Words" was published. The collection was reprinted in 1899 and 1955.

In 1955, the collection "Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" by N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina was published (4th edition - in 1988). The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions arranged in alphabetical order.

THE ROLE OF THE DICTIONARY IN THE WORK OF THE TRANSLATOR.

No matter how qualified a translator is, he cannot do without dictionaries. A dictionary is necessary for both a student taking the first steps in the field of translation and a professional translator.

Translation requires a variety of dictionaries and reference books. Without this, it is difficult to achieve high-quality translations quickly.

Dictionaries are used not only when they do not know the meaning or translation of a unit of foreign language, but also for selection the best option from a number already known to the translator.

But dictionaries also have disadvantages:

1) Another drawback of bilingual dictionaries is that, as a rule, they do not include words that have entered the language relatively recently, as well as units widely used in the media, journalism and fiction of our days.

Often a translator needs to reveal certain shades of the meaning of a word, and in this case it is important that these shades are presented in the dictionary. That is why different dictionaries have different value for the translator.

2) It is even more difficult for a translator when translating the contextual meanings of words, which, as a rule, do not correspond to in a bilingual dictionary at all due to their low frequency.

An experienced translator in such cases can choose a contextual correspondence to a unit of foreign language, starting from the normative meanings of the word given in the dictionary, but this, as a rule, is extremely difficult.

3) On the other hand, the words of the TL, more or less successfully translating individual meanings foreign words, may have their own additional meanings and shades that the corresponding foreign words do not have. And here there is a risk of transferring these meanings and shades to a foreign word.

Of particular note is the danger of using outdated bilingual dictionaries.

An outdated dictionary is the translator's enemy!

1) Another advantage of using explanatory dictionaries is their great informativeness, reliability of information and the availability of information of an encyclopedic nature.

2) The advantage of encyclopedic dictionaries is their greater information content, a greater number of citations and illustrations.

Modern encyclopedic dictionaries are published quickly and in an ever greater thematic variety, which is exactly what a modern translator needs.

The main purpose of encyclopedic dictionaries is to give a comprehensive reference about a word, concept, phenomenon.

3) Variety of dictionaries.

Problems of the origin of language.

1. The concept of the national language. Forms of existence national language.

2. Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon. Homonym types

The national language is called the whole set of means necessary for communication by representatives of certain nations.

National language - the phenomenon is heterogeneous, exists in its various forms. Scientists distinguish 4 forms (options) of the existence of the national language, one literary and three non-literary:

1. Literary language

2. Territorial dialects

3. Urban vernacular

4. Jargon

Language is a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargon and literary language.

Dialects - local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech, they serve for everyday communication.

vernacular - the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, kolidor, without a coat, driver).

Jargon - the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a commonality of occupations, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word slang is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo - the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.

Literary language - the highest form of the national language, processed by the masters of the word. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.

In the lexical system of the Russian language, there are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called mononymy (gr. Homos - the same + onyma - name).

For example, the key is a "spring" (cold key) and the key is "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" (steel key); bow - "plant" (green onion) and bow - "weapon for throwing arrows" (tight bow). Unlike polysemantic words, lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

The following types of homonyms are distinguished:

Full and lexical homonyms . These are words in the form of which different meanings randomly coincided.

Full homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in sound in all grammatical forms and in spelling. H: key (source of water; to a guess; a device for opening doors).

Partial homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in spelling or sound or in one or two grammatical forms. H: onion

Homophones (phonetic homonyms ) - words identical in sound composition (pronunciation), but different in letter composition (spelling): code and cat, mushroom and flu, fort and Ford, people and fierce, illuminate and consecrate;

Homographs (graphic, alphabetic homonyms) - identical in letter composition, but different in pronunciation of the word: soar - soar, horns - horns, shelves - shelves, atlas - atlas;

Homoforms (matching grammatical forms of different words or one word): summer time - it's time to go; hunting (for wolves) and hunting (desire); window glass - glass on the floor (noun and verb); frozen meat - chocolate ice cream (adj. and n.); enjoy spring - return in spring (noun and adverb); seal up a leak - flow across the floor (noun and verb).

Basic Tutorials:

1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language. - Uch. allowance. – M.: Flinta-Nauka, 2005. – 412 p.

2. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M., 1958.

3. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.

4. Girutsky A.A.. Introduction to linguistics. Minsk, 2000.

5. Grechko V.A.. Theory of linguistics. - M.: Higher school, 2003. - 375 p.

6. Golovin B.N.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1977.

7. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1979.

8. Maslov Y.S.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1975.

9. Nelyubin L.L. Essays on introduction to linguistics. - Textbook. - M., 2005. - 215 p.

10. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1999. - 536 p.

11. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Introduction to General Philology. M., 1979.

12. Sorokina E.BUT. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2013.

13. Shaikevich A.Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1995.

Additional benefits:

1. Barannikova L.I. Basic information about the language. M., 1982.

2. Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. T. 1-2. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - 390 s

3. Ganeev B.T. Language: Tutorial, 2nd ed., revised, add. - Ufa: publishing house of BSPU, 2001. - 272 p.

4. Genidze N.K. Fundamentals of modern linguistics. Proc. settlement - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the St. Petersburg State. University of Economics and Finance, 2003. - 201 p.

5. Grinev-Grinevich S.V., Sorokina E.A., Skopyuk T.G. Fundamentals of anthropolinguistics. Tutorial. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 128 p.

6. Budagov R.A. Literary languages and language styles. M., 1967.

7. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 1995.

8. Kamchatnov A.M., Nikolina N.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2000.

9. Krongauz M.A.. Semantics. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005. - 352 p.

10. Kondratov A.M. Sounds and signs. M., 1978.

11. Kondratov A.M.. The land of people is the land of languages. M., 1974.

12. Kondratov A.M.. Letter book. M., 1975.

13. Leontiev A.A. What is language. M., 1976.

14. Lakoff J., Johnson M. Metaphors we live by. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004. - 256 p.

15. Mechkovskaya N.B.. Social linguistics: A manual for students of liberal arts universities and students of lyceums. 2nd ed., rev. M.: Aspect-Press, 1996. - 207 p.

16. Norman B.Yu. Fundamentals of linguistics. Minsk, 1996.

17. Odintsov V.V.. linguistic paradoxes. M., 1976.

18. Panov M.V. And yet she is good ... M., 1978.

19. Sakharny L.V. How our language works. M., 1978.

20. Languages ​​as an image of the world. - M .: LLC "Izd-vo AST"; St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, 2003. - 568 p.