Reasons for creating artificial languages. The history of the creation and functioning of Volapuk

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) None of the artificial languages ​​has become a full-fledged means of communication. (2) The fact is that language is not only and not so much a means of communication: the first purpose of language is to store information accumulated by mankind about the world and man. (3) ____ this is what allows the language to successfully perform its functions; the absence of such a basis prevented artificial languages ​​from fulfilling the tasks assigned to them.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. The lack of the ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man prevented artificial languages ​​from becoming a full-fledged means of communication.

2. None of the artificial languages ​​became a full-fledged means of communication, because they did not fulfill the tasks assigned to them.

3. Language is not only and not so much a means of communication, but also a keeper of information accumulated by mankind about the world and man.

4. Artificial languages ​​are not a full-fledged means of communication, since they do not fulfill the main purpose of any language - to store information about the world and a person.

5. The ability to store the information accumulated by mankind about the world and man allows the language to successfully perform its functions.

2

Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write out this word.

1. Probably

3. Fortunately,

5. Hardly

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word MEAN. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

TOOL, -a, cf.

1. Reception, method of action to achieve something. Simple s. To achieve by all means. All means are good for someone. (Someone does not disdain anything to achieve their goals, success; neod.).

2. A tool (object, set of devices) for the implementation of some kind of. activities. Means of transport. Remedies.

3. A medicine, an item necessary for treatment, as well as an item of cosmetics (in 2 values). Medicines. C. for cough. Dressings. Cosmetics.

4. Mn. Money, loans. Working capital. Set aside funds for something.

5. Mn. Capital, state. Man of means. Living beyond one's means (spending more than one's income, fortune) allows.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

accountants

plum

repeated

seal

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. One of my uncles liked to READ verses, that is, to read them in a singsong voice.

2. What a pity that modern schoolchildren do not feel the BENEFITS of the book: it is a true friend, it is a beacon in doubt, it is an anchor in a storm of passions!

3. In the Renaissance, a new GLASS material was found, crystal clear and perfect in terms of plasticity.

4. Listening to his HARD but still articulate speech, thinned out with jokes, was creepy.

5. He was one of those limited people who are especially pleasant precisely because of their LIMITEDness.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

pair of stockings

DESIRED variant

in 150 meters

sent the magazine with a BANDEROL

LONGER than a pencil

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed unchecked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

reg... kitten

time ... to get involved

magical

agreement

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

n...eating, pr...parents

pr ... hail, pr ... be able

ra...ghosting, nor...fall

to...bite, o...row

ra ... be generous, and ... support

10

Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

suede

magnesium...

toy...

assign...

harden...

11

Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.

hear... my

checked ... who

stand ... sh

parted ... sh

naveva... my

12

Identify the sentence in which NOT is written SEPARATELY with the word. Open the brackets and write out this word.

1. A person who is indifferent to his native nature (not) can love his homeland.

2. (Un)paved street went straight into the field.

3. Air is (not) movable.

4. In the morning there is (un)experienced heat.

5. A person with an indignant conscience becomes stronger (un)bad.

13

Define a sentence in which both underlined words are written THROUGH THE HYPHEN. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. In the heat, all living things hid WHERE (THAT) and are afraid to raise their heads, THAT (WOULD) not burn their hair and burn their nose.

2. Pavel recognized the very first, (IN)CHILDLY naive buildings in the park: a monk's hut, an arbor (IN) THE FORM of a tower.

3. Everything was good and HOW (THAT) especially, not (FOR) ALWAYS clear and close.

4. Among the shrubs, you can still see (SOME) ANY representatives of the flora, for example, wild rose, lemongrass, and ALSO (SAME) viburnum.

5. Now between the small surviving islands of the forest on the slopes of the hill RARE (RARE), but EVERYTHING (SAME) juniper bushes grow.

14

Indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) one letter N is written.

I remember both the evening pale blue fogs, and the night ones, pierced by (1) lu (2) light (they seem silver (3)), and morning (4) s, pale pink, colored (5) dawn.

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. Frost taps on the trunks and branches of thick trees and light silver hoarfrost falls in flakes.

2. Among meadow grasses there are also anise and chamomile and St. John's wort and yarrow.

3. In Japan, evergreen trees and shrubs grow with hard and shiny leaves - camellias.

4. The day was perfectly clear, quiet and hot.

5. The sun stood directly above the forest and incessantly baked his back and head.

16

Waves (1) running ashore (2) fell heavily (3) breaking into spray (4) hissed evil (5) rolling down from the stones.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

1) Yazykov, who possessed (1) according to Pushkin (2) an amazing fire of language, in one of his poems he magnificently described the Volga and the Oka.

2) And when he told me this story, then (3) according to him (4) everything turned out completely differently.

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

Not the smart one (1) who knows how to distinguish good from evil (2) but the one (3) who knows how to choose the lesser of two evils.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate the number (s) in the place of which (s) in the sentence should be commas.

It was a dazzling mid-March morning (1) when the snow settled everywhere to the ground (2) and compacted in the fields (3) and only the roadsides were already cut by the sun.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the incorrectly used word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of modern Russian literary language.

We wished the organizers to gather such evenings more often.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) How little Kolya remembered himself in the war, he was always hungry. (2) He could not get used to, adjust to hunger, and his sunken eyes gleamed angrily, constantly looking for prey. (H) Black-haired, uncut, disheveled, with protruding ribs, he looked like a small, emaciated wolf cub. (4) At home they gave him a chatter and bread. (5) Mother added brooms to the flour - threshed panicles of millet, and the bread was heavy, viscous; he smelled of damp clay. (6) But the hungry boy ate this bread instantly.

(7) Once in the entire war, he ate plenty of bread. (8) And the bread was not from brooms - real. (9) Our machine gunners brought him with them. (10) They entered the hut at night. (11) Little Kolya hid in a corner and cautiously watched the aliens. (12) And then a high-cheeked soldier, limping on his left leg, noticed him. (13) He beckoned Kolya to him:

(14) - Hey, master, come here. (15) Do you want some bread?

(16) The boy wanted to shout: “I want! Want!" (17) But a lump rolled up in my throat. (18) He could not utter a word and silently swallowed saliva.

(19) - You probably had a hearty dinner?

(20) Kolya blinked in confusion, and the big-cheeked soldier untied the bag and thrust a large piece of bread into his hand. (21) The hungry boy felt dizzy. (22) He climbed onto the stove, closed his eyes and clung to the bread. (23) He breathed bread, warmed it with his hands and cheek. (24) He bit off the crumb, then gnawed the crust with cheerful excitement. (25) The late satiety sweetly spilled over the body. (26) He fell asleep. (27) And all night he dreamed of bread.

(28) ... When the war was coming to an end, the mother sowed a strip of wheat in the garden. (29) Soon timid shoots sprouted from the ground. (30) Then the ears appeared - big-eyed, bluish, slightly misted. (31) Then the strip became straw.

(32) When the first harvest was harvested, the grandmother, in joy, baked two sunflower-sized cakes. (33) The cakes were fragrant, ruddy. (34) Grandmother smeared them with an oil feather and sprinkled with salt, large, like crushed glass. (35) Heat came from the cakes, and they glowed like two small salted suns.

(36) The boy was sitting in front of the table, and his sunken eyes were rooted to the cakes. (37) He was waiting to be treated, and inhaled the warm spirit of baked bread. (38) He could hardly restrain himself so as not to reach out and take an enviable treat without asking. (39) Finally, the grandmother came up to him and said:

(40) - Taste, granddaughter, my cake.

(41) Some kind of hidden spring worked inside - the hands instantly rushed to the cake, the fingers squeezed it tightly and pulled it into the mouth.

(42) The crust burned the lips, the salt pinched the tongue, the nostrils swelled, afraid to miss a bit of the delicious smell. (43) Korzh soon died ... (44) Kolya sighed heavily. (45) And the second cake, ruddy, whole and probably even more delicious, lay on the table and smiled invitingly with all his face.

(46) - Take this cake to your grandfather in the apiary, - said the grandmother.

(48) Grandmother wrapped the hot cake in burdock and handed it to Kolya.

(49) Grandfather was delighted. (50) He turned the cake in his hands and sniffed. (51) And Kolya stood in front of the old man, absorbed in the hope that his grandfather would break the cake in half.

(52) But the grandfather did not eat the present, but took it to the hut. (53) What a greedy grandfather! (54) Completely wild with his bees. (55) He specially hid the cake so as not to share it and then calmly chew it, dipping it in sticky buckwheat honey.

(56) Kolya was about to leave. (57) At the last minute, when grandfather held out a knapsack with dirty laundry- let the grandmother stretch! - something trembled in Kolya, and he almost asked his grandfather for a piece of cake. (58) But he managed to overcome a momentary weakness. (59) And he was silent.

(60) He walked slowly, waving a knapsack, and thought that when the war ended, there would be a lot of bread in the house and he would eat cakes in the morning, afternoon and evening. (61) And now the grandfather is eating the cake - he, Kolya, has already eaten his own.

(62) At home, he shoved a knapsack to his grandmother and grunted:

(63) - Grandfather ordered to stretch!

(64) Grandmother silently began to lay out grandfather's underwear on the bench. (65) At the bottom of the knapsack was a clean rag tied in a knot. (66) Grandmother slowly untied the knot with naughty fingers. (67) There was a cake in a rag. (68) She didn't say anything. (69) She put an unexpected present in front of her grandson.

People have been experiencing this problem since ancient times."language barrier". They solved it in different ways: for example, they learned other languages ​​or chose one language for international communication (in the Middle Ages, Latin was the language of scientists all over the world, and now English is understood in most countries). Pidgins were also born - a kind of "hybrids" of two languages. And since the 17th century, scientists have thought about creating a separate language that would be easier to learn. Indeed, in natural languages ​​there are many exceptions and borrowings, and their structure is determined by historical development, as a result of which it can be very difficult to trace the logic, for example, the formation of grammatical forms or spelling. Artificial languages ​​are often referred to as planned because the word "artificial" can evoke negative associations.

most famous and the most common of them is Esperanto, created by Ludwik Zamenhof in 1887. "Esperanto" - "hoping" - is the pseudonym of Zamenhof, but later this name was adopted by the language he created.

Zamenhof was born in Bialystok, in the Russian Empire. Jews, Poles, Germans and Belarusians lived in the city, and relations between representatives of these peoples were very tense. Ludwik Zamenhof believed that the cause of interethnic hostility lies in misunderstanding, and even at the gymnasium he made attempts to develop a “common” language based on the European languages ​​​​he studied, which at the same time would be neutral - non-ethnic. The structure of Esperanto was created to be quite simple for ease of learning and memorization of the language. The roots of the words were borrowed from European and Slavic languages, as well as from Latin and ancient Greek. There are many organizations whose activities are dedicated to the spread of Esperanto, books and magazines are published in this language, there are broadcast channels on the Internet, and songs are created. Also for this language there are versions of many common programs - such as the office application OpenOffice.org, the Mozilla Firefox browser. as well as the Esperanto version of the Google search engine. The language is supported by UNESCO.

Beyond Esperanto, there are many other artificially created languages, both widely known and not common. Many of them were created with the same goal - to develop the most convenient means for international communication: Ido, Interlingua, Volapuk and others. Some other artificial languages, such as Loglan, have been created for research purposes. And languages ​​like Na'vi, Klingon, and Sindarin were designed to be spoken by characters in books and movies.

What is the difference from natural languages?

Unlike natural languages developed throughout the history of mankind, eventually separated from any proto-language and died, artificial languages ​​are created by people for relatively a short time. They can be created based on the elements and structure of existing natural languages, or "constructed" entirely. The authors of artificial languages ​​disagree on which of the strategies best meets the goals - neutrality, ease of learning, ease of use. However, many believe that the creation of artificial languages ​​is meaningless, since they will never spread enough to serve as a universal language. Even the Esperanto language is now known to a few, and English is most often used for international negotiations. The study of artificial languages ​​is hampered by many factors: there are no native speakers, the structure can change periodically, and as a result of disagreements between theorists, an artificial language can be divided into two variants - for example, Lojban was separated from Loglan, and Ido from Esperanto. Nevertheless, supporters of artificial languages ​​still believe that in the conditions of modern globalization, a language is needed that could be used by everyone, but at the same time not associated with any particular country or culture, and continue linguistic research and experiments.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of an artificial language has one big drawback - the almost impossibility of its application in life. This is true. In a note entitled "Artificial Languages", published in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia it is argued that: "The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of declaring the transition of mankind to a single language created at least according to the type of the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. the inseparable connection of language with thought and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society.

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by "any artificially invented "general" language". He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects for a universal, or worldwide international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses of the people who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to multilingualism - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open before all the peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity to the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn on all the continents and islands of the globe into a living, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are manifold. It is also important that in these languages ​​the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science, has been overcome. Artificial languages ​​allow expressing certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages ​​are unified, international.

Using one of national languages as an intermediary language always gave the advantage of the nation for which it was native. This circumstance gave rise to numerous attempts to create an international artificial language, which, on the one hand, would be "nobody's", and, therefore, would not give advantages to any nation, and on the other hand, would belong to all mankind.

The first known attempt to create an artificial language was made in the 2nd century AD. Greek physician Galen. In total, in the history of mankind, about a thousand projects of an international artificial language have been created. However, very few of them have received at least some practical application.

The first artificial language that really became a means of communication between people was created in 1879 in Germany by J.M. Schleyer, Volapuk. Due to the extreme complexity and detail of its grammar, vopaluk was not widely used in the world, and around the middle of the 20th century it finally fell into disuse.

Much more happy fate expected invented in 1887 by L.L. Zamenhof the Esperanto language. Creating his own language, L.L. Zamenhof strove to make it as simple and easy to learn as possible. He succeeded. Esperanto orthography is built on the principle of "one sound - one letter". Nominal inflection is limited to four, and verbal - to seven forms. Declension of names and conjugation of verbs is unified, in contrast to natural national languages, where, as a rule, we meet with several types of declension and conjugation. Mastering the Esperanto language usually takes no more than a few months.

Esperanto has a rich original and translated language. fiction, numerous newspapers and magazines (about 40 periodicals) are published, radio broadcasting is carried out in some countries. Esperanto, along with French, is the official language of the International Postal Association.

Interlingua (1903), Occidental (1922), Ido (1907), Novial (1928), Omo (1926) and some others are also among the artificial languages ​​that have received some practical use. However, they have not received wide distribution. Of all the artificial languages ​​that exist today, only Esperanto has a real chance of becoming in time the main means of international communication.

All artificial languages ​​are divided into a posteriori and a priori. A posteriori are called such artificial languages, which are composed "on the model and from the material of natural languages". Examples of a posteriori languages ​​are Esperanto, Latin-blue-flexione, novial, idiom-neutral. A priori are called such artificial languages, the vocabulary and grammar of which are in no way connected with the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages, but are built on the basis of the principles developed by the creator of the language. Solresol and rho are examples of a posteriori languages.

Along with attempts to create an international artificial language, more than once attempts were made to create an international writing system, with which it was possible to create texts readable in any language. Such writing systems are called pasigraphy.

As an example of pasigraphy, we can cite the picture letter "picto" created by the Dutchman K. Jansen. Here are some signs of this letter: ⌂ “home”, Λ “to go”, ∞ “to speak”, “to love”, I “I, me, me”, II “you, you, you”, III “he, him, him ”, .□ “front, front”, □. “behind”, |- the verb “to be” in the present tense, .|- the verb “to be” in the past tense, |-. the verb “to be” in the future tense, |+ the verb “to have” in the personal form, Ō “city”.

In addition to such simple drawing systems, numerous digital pasigraphy systems were also created, in which each word was encoded by a certain set of numbers. Neither pictorial nor digital pasigraphy was widely used, remaining only a curious experiment in the history of linguistics.

A.Yu. Musorin. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004

Logic as the science of thinking. What does logic study as a science

What does logic study as a science and why is it called formal?

The word "logic" comes from the Greek logos, which means "thought", "word", "reason", "regularity". In modern language, this word is used, as a rule, in three meanings:

1) to denote patterns and relationships between events or actions of people in the objective world; in this sense one often speaks of the "logic of facts", "logic of things", "logic of events", "logic of international relations", "logic of political struggle", etc.;

2) to indicate the rigor, consistency, patterns of the thinking process; in this case, the following expressions are used: “logic of thinking”, “logic of reasoning”, “iron logic of reasoning”, “there is no logic in the conclusion”, etc.

3) to designate a special science that studies logical forms, operations with them and the laws of thought.

object logic as a science is human thinking. But thinking is a complex, multifaceted process of a generalized reflection by a person of things, their properties and relations of the world around him. This process is studied by many sciences, such as philosophy, psychology, genetics, linguistics, cybernetics, etc. Philosophy studies the origin and essence of thinking, its relation to the material world and knowledge. Psychology studies the conditions of normal (in relation to pathology) functioning and development of thinking, the influence of the socio-psychological environment on it. Genetics seeks to reveal the mechanism of inheritance by people of the ability to think. Linguistics is interested in the relationship of thinking with language. Cybernetics scientists are trying to construct technical models of the brain and human thinking. Logic, on the other hand, studies the process of thinking from the point of view of its structure of thoughts, the correctness and incorrectness of reasoning, abstracting from the specific content of thoughts and their development.

Subject logics are logical forms, operations with them and laws of thought.

In order to better understand the subject of the study of logic, let us briefly consider the process of human cognition of the world around him. Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge about the world. There are two ways (sources) of obtaining knowledge:

1) sensory cognition - with the help of the sense organs and instruments;

2) rational(ratio - reason) - knowledge with the help of abstract thinking.

The materialist theory of knowledge is based on the theory of reflection: things, phenomena of the objective world affect the human senses, make the entire system of information transfer to the brain (as well as the brain itself) work, as a result of which images of these things and phenomena are created in a person.sensual images are knowledge about the external properties, aspects of things and phenomena (visible, audible, tangible, etc.). Such, for example, is our knowledge that "it's rainy today"; "it's half past four on my watch"; "this rose is red"; "Peter sits to the left of Paul," etc.

Sensory cognition proceeds in three main forms: sensation (reflection of individual properties of objects), perception (reflection of the object as a whole, this is a holistic image of the object) and representation (the preserved image of objects).

But at the level of sensory cognition, a person cannot cognizeessence things and phenomena, theirdomestic properties. As the Little Prince from the story of the same name by A. de Saint-Exupery said, “you can’t see the most important thing with your eyes.” Therefore, reason comes to the aid of the sense organs, or abstract thinking, which reflects reality in its main and essential properties and relations.

In abstract thinking, knowledge of the world does not occur explicitly, but indirectly - without recourse to observation, practice, but with the help of additional reasoning about the properties and interconnection of objects and phenomena. For example, a thermometer can tell you about the weather; based on the traces left by the criminal at the scene of the crime, it is possible to recreate the picture of the crime and find the criminal, etc.

One of the most important features of abstract thinking is its relationship with language: each thought is formed by means of words and phrases - it is “spoken out” with the help of internal or external speech.

In the process of thinking, a person not only reflects the existing world, but can create new ideas, abstractions, predict and foresee.

Rational or abstract thinking proceeds in three main forms - concepts, judgments, conclusions.

concept - a form of thinking, with the help of which mental images are created about objects, their properties and relationships. In the process of creating concepts, a personanalyzes subjects of interest,compares themhighlights essential features,synthesizes them,abstracted from the unimportantsummarizes mentally objects according to these signs. As a result, mental images are created about objects, their properties and relationships. For example, abstracting from the diverse individual properties of students related to their nationality, gender, age, etc., and highlighting the main properties, we can say that a student is a student of higher educational institutions; student - one who receives education; and the man himself is the one who is able to work, think, speak.

Concepts play an important role in human cognitive activity. With their help, he can generalize, mentally connect what exists in life separately, apart. In the objective world, there is no student, student, person in general; these generalized images can exist only in the ideal world, in the head of a person.

The formation of concepts makes it possible to have knowledge about phenomena based on the main, essential properties of a class of similar phenomena. Jonathan Swift eloquently narrates what would happen if people did not use concepts in communication with each other. One wise man, says the author of Gulliver's Travels, suggested using in conversation not concepts about objects, but the objects themselves to express thoughts. Many followed this "wise" advice. True, the interlocutors had to carry large bundles of things on their shoulders. When they met on the street, they took off the bags from their shoulders, opened them and, taking out the necessary things from there, conducted a conversation in this way. Of course, such a "conversation" could be extremely elementary, if it could take place at all.

Having a concept of objects, a person canjudge about them(to make judgments) and doinferences. For example, having the concept of a person and knowing that all living things die sooner or later, we can make a judgment: "Every person is mortal."

Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about the subject of thought. The following statements are also judgments: “Every student takes an exam”, “If a student does not pass the exams for the first year, he will not be transferred to the second year”, etc.

From judgments we can derive new judgments. For example: based on the judgment "Every person is mortal", one can assert that "Some mortals are people" or deny: "No person is immortal." If, however, we connect the proposition "Every man is mortal" with the proposition "Socrates is a man", then we can get a new proposition in a purely mental way: "Socrates is mortal." This relationship of judgments is calledinference:

Every man is mortal

Socrates is a man

Socrates is mortal.

In the process of constructing concepts, judgments and conclusions, a person can make conscious and unconscious errors. To avoid mistakes, you need to know the rules of thinking. Thinking built according to the rules (and laws) is called correct.

Right thinking - one in which from the original true knowledge (concepts, judgments and inferences) new true knowledge (new concepts, judgments, conclusions) is always necessarily obtained. In wrong thinking, both true and false new knowledge can be obtained from true knowledge.

For example, based on the judgments "If it was raining, the road will be wet" and "It was raining", it is safe to say that "The road will be wet." But it is wrong to conclude: “If it was raining, then the road will be wet” and “The road is wet”, therefore, “It was raining”, since the road could simply be watered. then he committed - a crime "and" The person did not commit theft "the conclusion is made" The person did not commit a crime ", since the person could have committed any other crime.

Question aboutcorrectness inferences is a question about the rules for their construction, about the rules for the interconnection of individual thoughts (concepts, judgments, conclusions). This is what logic as the science of thinking is interested in. That is why it is called "formal logic". Formal logic is abstracted from the concrete content of thoughts and their development. But it takes into account the truth or falsity of the thoughts under study (in two-valued formal logic, two meanings of any thought are taken into account - "true" and "false"; in many-valued formal logic, other meanings are introduced, for example, "indefinitely"). Sometimes correct thinking is called logical - by the name of the science that studies this side of the thinking process.

question abouttruth (falsity) of judgments is a question of the correspondence (non-correspondence) of what is affirmed or denied in it to the objective world.True Judgment - one that correctly reflects the state of affairs in objective reality (which corresponds to reality). For example: “Moscow is the capital of Russia”, “A criminal is a person who violates the legal and moral laws of society”, etc.false judgment one that is not true. For example: “St. Petersburg is the capital of Russia”, “The criminal is a righteous person”, etc. Questions about what truth is in general, how sensory knowledge and abstract thinking correlate in the process of achieving the truth about objects, are studied by another science - philosophy .

In order to better understand the subject of study of logic and its role in human cognition and thinking, it is necessary to dwell in more detail on the consideration of the logical form and laws of thinking.

Logical form and laws of thought

We have already said that the main forms of abstract thinking areconcept, judgment, conclusion. Each of these forms has its own specific internal structure and is subject to certain construction rules.

In the natural language of thoughtexpressed with words andphrases, havespecific content (what they say). For example, you can express the concept of the first man in space as "The first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin." The outer shell of a simple judgment can be different language expressions:snow is white etc.

To reveal the internal structure of concepts, let us compare concepts of different content, for example, “table”, “person”, “crime”.

They reflect different subjects and are different in their content. But do they have anything in common?

Let us abstract from concrete objects that are reflected in concepts and represent them as classes of indefinite objects.x. In the first case underX the class of all possible tables is understood, in the second - the class of people, in the third - the set of all kinds of criminal acts. Objects can be generalized into classes because they have some common properties. In the first case - the property "to be an object with a horizontal surface intended for some kind of human activity", in the second - "the ability to think" and "the ability to work", in the third - "to be an antisocial, illegal, guilty and punishable act"

You can abstract from the specifics of these properties, combine them and denote them with the symbolBUT (sum of common features). Then the relationship between the classes of objects and the class of common properties of these objects can be represented by the following formula:X A (X). It reads: “a class of such objectsx, which have the characteristicsBUT". This relationship between a class of objects and a set of features islogical form of concepts. We can say that the concepts of various objects (phenomena, processes, properties of objects, etc.) are formed in human thinking in the same way - objects are generalized into classes according to their essential features.Logical form of concepts - a way of connecting the features of objects with the objects themselves.

To reveallogical form of reasoning Let's consider judgments of different content: "A table is furniture", "A man walks on two legs" and "Crime must be punished".

Do they have something in common? Let us digress from what is said in these judgments, we will replace the conceptstable, person anda crime symbolS (subject), we get:

(1) S is furniture,

(2) S walks (is walking) on ​​two legs,

(3) S should be punished.

Now let us abstract from those properties that are attributed to the subject of thought, and replace the concepts expressing these properties with the symbolR (predicate). We get the same form of the relationship between the subject and the predicate of the judgment:S is R. UnderS andR you can think of any objects and properties, underessence - affirmative relationship between subject and predicate. This formula for the connection between the concepts of objects and the concepts of the properties of objects islogical form of reasoning. The relationship between concepts in a judgment can be negative:S do not eatR. Logical form of judgments - a way of connecting concepts about an object, about the properties of objects or relations between objects, expressed in the form of an affirmation or negation. Fromsimple judgments can be madecomplex judgments that have their own logical forms.

The logical form of inferences is more complex and varied. Consider the following inferences:

(1) from the propositions "Every criminal must be punished" and "Petrov is a criminal" the new proposition "Petrov must be punished" necessarily follows. The conclusion is obtained because the original judgments are connected by the common concept of “criminal” for them (we denote by the letterM - medium, average);

(2) from the propositions "Every man is mortal" and "Socrates is a man" a new proposition "Socrates is mortal" can be obtained.

If we abstract from the specific content of these inferences, then we can establish a common logical form for them:

AnyM there isR

S there isM

S there isR.

Logical form of reasoning - a way of communication of judgments. The more complex the judgments that make up the inference, the more complex the logical form of the inference will be.

In the real process of thinking, the content and the logical form of thought exist in an inseparable unity. There are no pure, empty forms. However, for the purposes of a special analysis, formal logic is abstracted from the specific content of thoughts, making their logical forms the subject of its study.

The logical forms of thoughts do not depend on what natural language a person thinks in. They are universal. Logical forms express relationships between things that in human practice, repeating billions of times, are fixed in his mind by the figures of logic.

The connections and relations of things and phenomena are diverse, and therefore the logical forms of thoughts are also diverse. Not all of them are correct. For example, we know from practice that two things can have a connection with a third, but not be connected with each other. Suppose we know that "Student Ivanov is an athlete" and "Student Petrov is an athlete." But if we do not have any additional information about them, then these judgments do not provide grounds for new judgments. In our minds, this reasoning is reflected in the form of an irregular form:

S 1 there isR

S 2 there isR

?

In incorrectly shaped reasoning, false conclusions can be obtained from true judgments. For example, from the true judgments “If a person has a fever, then he is sick” and “Man N. is sick”, the judgment “Human N. has a fever” is sometimes derived, which may turn out to be false, since some diseases occur without an increase in temperature .

Correct logical forms are those in which new true judgments are always necessarily obtained from true judgments.

In correct reasoning, two conditions must be met: 1) the original judgments must be true; 2) the way of connecting the parts of thoughts must be correctly built. Some of the rules for constructing thoughts have the character of laws of thought.

Underlogical laws understand stable necessary connections between thoughts. Formal-logical laws are the laws of the correct construction of thoughts.

Formal logic studies two types of laws:

1. Laws expressingnecessary general requirements, which concepts, judgments, inferences and logical operations with them must satisfy. These laws are calledbasic, because they express the fundamental properties of logical thinking: itscertainty, consistency, consistency andvalidity.

The requirements for thinking, expressed in the basic laws of logic, can be depicted as follows:

2. Laws expressinglogical forms (schemes, structures)right constructed reasoning, conclusions, statements.

The second type of law iswell built statements in which the truth of some judgments withnecessity forces others to accept the truth. With properly constructed thinking, we “feel compelled” to think one way and not another. For example, if we recognized the truth of the judgments "If a person committed a theft, then he committed a crime" and "A person committed a theft", then we must admit that "A person committed a crime."

To check whether this or that statement is well-formed (i.e., a law), it is necessary, firstly, to reveal its logical form and, secondly, to check whether the truth of the conclusion necessarily follows from the truth of the premises. We will talk about this in more detail in the topic “Conclusion”.

Violation of the requirements of the laws of logic leads to the fact that thinking becomes wrong, illogical. In the practice of thinking, there are two kinds of errors associated with violation of the requirements of the laws of logic -sophistry andparalogisms.

Tosophistry resorted to by those who consciously try to make incorrect reasoning appear correct by deliberately violating the rules and laws of thinking. For example, a sophism is a reasoning that justifies the proposition “All students learn their lessons well”:

All who are attentive learn their lessons well.

Some students are attentive.

All students learn well.

The error in this reasoning lies in the fact that the term "students", taken in the second premise only in a certain part of its scope ("some students"), is taken in the conclusion in its entirety ("all students").

Paralogism - it is a logical error made unintentionally, usually due to ignorance of logical rules.

Let's consider in more detailbasic laws of thought.

1. Identity law: every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself. The law of identity can be expressed as a formula:R there isR ; r → r orp ≡ p, where underR any thought is understood, and the signs: “is”,→ (replace conjunctions "if .., then ..."),≡ (replaces unions "if, and only if .., then ...") - express respectively equality, following or identity.

The law expresses the requirement for the certainty of thinking in the process of reasoning: a thought must have a certain stable content and not be replaced by other thoughts. This requirement is due to the fact that in the natural language there are many words that may be outwardly similar to each other, but have different meanings (synonyms), as well as the fact that different people, depending on their profession, life experience, etc. put different meanings into the same concepts. Thus, a lawyer understands “slander” as “the dissemination of deliberately false information that discredits the honor and dignity of another person or undermines his reputation”, and a person who is not connected with legal practice can understand any lie as slander.

Failure to comply with the requirement of certainty of thinking leads to confusion, ambiguity, makes it difficult to clarify the essence of the conversation, dispute, leads to a logical error, which is called "substitution of concepts". The substitution of concepts means the substitution of the subject of reasoning. Folk wisdom expressed this in a proverb: "One is about Thomas, the other is about Yerema." So they say about those who, in a conversation, it would seem, on one topic, talk or argue about different things.

Arguing about words, of course, is not smart. It is impossible to forbid the use of this or that word. But it is important that the interlocutors (or arguing people) use the words in the same sense.

Of course, the objects that exist in objective reality are constantly changing, but something unchanging stands out in the concepts of these objects. In the process of reasoning, one cannot change concepts without a special reservation.

Compliance with the requirements of the law of identity is of great importance in practice. It is no coincidence that the requirement to observe the law of identity is enshrined, for example, in the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation.

2. Law of non-contradiction says that in reasoning, proof, theory there should not be contradictory thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time and in the same respect. This law is formulated as follows:a proposition and its negation (two contradictory propositions) cannot be both true, at least one of them is necessarily false. The law of non-contradiction is expressed by the formula: “it is not true thatR and not-R ”, that is, two thoughts cannot be true together, one of which denies the other. For example, two contradictory propositions cannot be simultaneously true: “N. guilty of a crime" and "N. not guilty of a crime."

Formal-logical contradictions in human reasoning should not be confused with dialectical contradictions, contradictions of “living life”, which reflect the contradictory aspects of objects and phenomena, opposite development trends and find expression in scientific and everyday reasoning. Thus, the famous statement of Socrates "I know that I know nothing" hides a contradiction. Indeed, if Socrates knows that he knows nothing, then he does not know this either. The inconsistency of sensations can be expressed by the words: “the song is heard and not heard”, “the river moves and does not move”. The Russian proverb “Well done among the sheep, but against the good fellow the sheep himself” refers to different styles of behavior of one person (in relation to different people). But there is no logical contradiction in these judgments, since we can talk about different (opposite) features of objects or about features recorded at different times. A logical contradiction occurs when opposing statements are made.on the same sides objects, phenomena, takenat the same time andin the same respect.

The conscious use of the law of non-contradiction helps to detect and eliminate contradictions in one’s own and other people’s reasoning (which, by the way, is the strongest argument against the opponent’s statements), to develop a critical attitude towards all kinds of inaccuracies, inconsistencies in thoughts and actions.

3. Law of the excluded middle reads:of two contradictory judgments about the same subject, at the same time, in the same respect, one is necessarily true, and the other - false, there is no third. For example, one cannot simultaneously consider as true such thoughts about a certain number as “this number is prime” and “this number is not easy”, or: “Moscow is the capital of Russia” and “Moscow is not the capital of Russia”. Of course, the question of which judgment is true and which is false is decided in practice, establishing the correspondence or inconsistency between judgments and objective reality.

The formal-logical law of non-contradiction only asserts that contradictory judgments about any objects, phenomena cannot be both true and false at the same time. One of them is true, the other is false, and no third, middle, proposition is possible. The reasoning is carried out according to the formula:"either - or" ("either - or").

This law is expressed by the formulas:"or p, or not-p"; "either p or not-p" (either p or the negation of p is true). So, if the proposition "All lawyers are lawyers" is true, then the negation of this proposition "No lawyer is a lawyer" is false.

The law of the excluded middle also applies to the case when one of the statements denies something about the entire class of objects or phenomena, and the other statement asserts the same about a part of the objects or phenomena of this class. Both of these statements cannot be true at the same time. For example, if someone in a dispute first denies something about the whole class of objects: “beliefs do not exist”, and then suddenly recognizes the exact opposite with respect to part of the objects of this class: “I am convinced of the truth of my opinion”, then it may be caught in a logical contradiction.

The law also expresses the requirement to clarify our judgments, questions in such a way that it is possible to answer “yes” or “no” to the same question in the same sense, and not to look for something in between, indefinite. For example: "Is this act a crime or is it not a crime?" If the concept of "crime" were not precisely defined, then in some cases this question would be impossible to answer. Since it is possible to accurately define the concept of "crime" as an antisocial, illegal, guilty and punishable act, then in each specific case it is possible to give an unambiguous answer to this question. A lawyer often has to solve a case in the form of “either - or”: a given fact is either established or not established; the crime was committed or not committed; the accused is either guilty or not guilty, the witness lies or does not lie, etc.

The desire to evade a clear and definite answer to a question, to find some kind of average solution that does not really exist is characteristic of unprincipled people. People who change their point of view and evade a direct answer are like a weather vane, turning first one way and then the other at the slightest change in the wind.

4. Law of Sufficient Reason claims the following:every true thought must be substantiated (have sufficient grounds) by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. Law formula:"If there is q, then there is also its base p."

The requirement of reasonableness of thinking reflects one of the fundamental properties of the material world: in nature and in society, every fact, every object, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts, objects, phenomena. More than two hundred years ago, M. V. Lomonosov formulated the law of the objective world: "Nothing happens without a sufficient reason." The lake freezes in winter, as the ambient temperature drops; smoke rises because it is lighter than the surrounding atmosphere, etc.

In thinking, the law also operates: a sufficient basis for any thought can be any other, already verified and recognized as true, from which the truth of this thought necessarily follows. If the truth of any thought is accepted only on faith, then it cannot be considered justified.

The law of sufficient reason is of great theoretical and practical importance: it helps to separate true judgments from false ones and requires us to consider as true only those judgments that have sufficient grounds and have been proven.

This law warns against the emergence of various prejudices and superstitions, which are usually built according to the scheme “after this, then because of this” (passed along the road that a black cat crossed - expect misfortune, spilled salt - it means people will quarrel with each other, etc.). This law requires to study every phenomenon, to find its causes. He warns against groundless judgments, "volitional" decisions, blind worship of authorities.

Lawslogic act in legal practice not only as the laws of logical thinking, but also as legal requirements in legal thinking.

The language of logic. Natural and artificial languages

Since logic studies the forms of thinking, and thinking is inextricably linked with language, logic is also the science of language.

Language - it is any sign information system (a system of words or signs) that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of cognition of reality and communication between people.

By origin, languages ​​are natural and artificial.

natural languages ​​- sound and graphic sign systems that have historically developed in society. Natural languages ​​arise spontaneously in the process of joint activity and communication of people and peoples. Natural languages ​​include languages ​​of different peoples, sign language, etc.

Artificial languages ​​- auxiliary sign systems created by groups of people specifically for more accurate transmission of specific information. Artificial languages ​​include musical notes, signs of code systems, ciphers, Morse code, the "thieves' language" used by criminals, etc.

There are also mixed languages, the base of which is the natural (national) language, supplemented by symbols and conventions related to a specific subject area. This group of languages ​​includes the language of formal logic.

Symbols are certain characters. Sign- any sensually perceived object that replaces, represents another object used in the process of cognition or communication as a representative of an object. Three types of signs are most typical: (1) index signs; (2) signs-images; (3) signs-symbols.

Index signs are associated with the objects they represent as consequences with causes (symptoms, signs, instrument readings, etc.). So, smoke is a sign that indicates the presence of fire; elevated human temperature - about the disease; change in the height of the mercury column - about a change in atmospheric pressure, etc.

Signs-images are those signs that in themselves carry information about the objects they represent (drawings, maps, paintings, photographs), since they are with the designated objects in relation to similarity.

Signs-symbols have no resemblance to the designated objects (emblems, coats of arms, banners, artistic and graphic symbols, signal signs or cipher signs).

Names are one of the types of signs. Name - is a word or phrase that refers to something. Because the name is a sign, it has meaning and meaning. The meaning of a name is the thing that the name denotes. The meaning of the name is the concept of the subject. The relationship between the name, objective meaning and meaning can be visually expressed using a triangle, at the corners of which are: name, concept, object.

This means that the name, concept and subject do not coincide, but are closely related: the name stands for subject andexpresses concept of the subject.

The interconnection of thinking and language (concepts and words) does not mean their identity. The same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, words from different natural languages ​​or synonymous words in the same language. Synonyms - words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning: “labor” and “work”; "agreement" and "contract".

On the other hand, every language has homonyms - words that are the same in form, sound, but different in meaning, in concept (for example, "key", "spit", "boron", "peace").

Sometimes words lose their original meanings and express new concepts (for example, the word “ink” originally meant “what blackens”, and today “what writes”, and we can talk about red ink).

The ambiguity of words often leads to a confusion of concepts, and, consequently, to errors in reasoning. Therefore, it is necessary to know exactly what concept this or that word expresses, and to use this word in a strictly defined sense.

In scientific knowledge, it is necessary to use unambiguous words and combinations. Such words are called terms. Term - a word or phrase denoting a strictly defined concept and characterized by unambiguity (at least within a given science or group of sciences).

The composition distinguishes between simple names (“state”) and complex ones, consisting of several words (“Earth satellite”, “Russian state”).

Names can also denote objects that do not exist in objective reality. For example, "centaur", "mermaid", "the most distant point of the Universe", etc. These names are imaginary, or empty.

Formal logic uses signs-symbols. There are no homonyms and obscure expressions in this language. This allows you to strictly fix the course of reasoning and accurately decide the question of their correctness or incorrectness.

In logic, the languages ​​of propositional logic and predicate logic are distinguished. The language of propositional logic is used to describe the structure of statements, reasoning, and sentences. Under statements simple or complex abstract symbolic expressions denoting judgments are understood. Simple statements combined into complex ones using the connectives “and”, “or”, “if .., then”, etc., are called propositional statements, and the logic by which such statements are described is sometimes called propositional logic, or propositional calculus. Propositional logic can be classical (two-valued) or multi-valued.

The language of predicate logic used to describe the internal structure of utterances. Predicate Logic Language Alphabet consists of the following characters:

a) a, b, c... - permanent subject terms;

b) x,y,z...- variable subject terms;

in) R, Q, R ... - predicate terms (property names);

G) p , q, r ... - propositional terms (names of statements);

e) quantifiers: - all, - some;

e) , - logical unions, which are read accordingly: “and”, “or”, “if ..., then ...”, “if, and only if, then ...” and are called the sign of negation, conjunction, disjunction, implications and equivalences;

g) technical characters: , - comma; () - parentheses.

Using the given alphabet, a formalized logical system is built, called the predicate calculus. Expressions of the predicate logic language are called formulas. Formulas can be well-formed and incorrectly constructed.

There is a special science of signs - semiotics. In this science, three sections are distinguished - syntax, semantics and pragmatics, which is associated with the presence of three aspects of the language.

Syntax called the section of semiotics, which studies the relationship between the signs themselves (the rules for constructing and transforming language expressions, etc.). In the process of this study, they are distracted from the meanings and meanings of signs.

Semantics called the section of semiotics, which primarily studies the relationship of signs to the objects they represent, as well as the meanings of signs, since they are one of the means of establishing a connection between signs and their meanings.

Pragmatics studies the relationship of a person to signs, as well as the relationship between people in the process of sign communication.

The language of formal logic avoids the ambiguity and ambiguity of natural language and reduces the process of checking the correctness of reasoning to "calculation".