Humanoid ape. The lifestyle and habitat of the great ape

The similarity of many anatomical and physiological features. This was first established by Charles Darwin's colleague - Thomas Huxley. Having carried out comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.

There is much in common in the external appearance of humans and great apes: large body sizes, long limbs relative to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, and a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, it should be noted a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of the appendix of the caecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc.

An exceptionally close resemblance is seen in biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, diseases. Great apes in nature are easily infected with infections from humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B obtained from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for studying many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans, 48 ​​in chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans), in their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.

However, there are significant differences between humans and anthropoids, to a greater extent due to the adaptability of humans to walking upright. The human spine is S-curved, the foot has an arch, which softens the shock when walking and running. When the torso is in a vertical position, the human pelvis takes on pressure internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the anthropoid pelvis: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the brush. The thumb of the human hand is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of various and subtle movements. In anthropoids, in connection with the arboreal way of life, the hands are hook-shaped, and the type of foot is prehensile. When forced to move on the ground great apes rest on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully extended position.

Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bone ridges and continuous superciliary arches, the brain part prevails over the front, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, on mandible there is a chin protrusion. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. In monkeys, on the contrary, the facial part, especially the jaws, is highly developed. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.

Humans are characterized by accelerated development early stages embryogenesis. This is explained by the fact that the human embryo should be implanted into the wall of the uterus as soon as possible, since its position in the uterus, due to the straightness of the mother's body, characteristic of a person, is unreliable before fixation.

At the later stages of prenatal ontogenesis, a progressive slowdown in human development is observed. Compared to other mammals, newborns in primates are small and helpless, and humans at birth lag behind newborn monkeys in terms of somatic development. A newborn baby of the lower narrow-nosed monkey in its own way physical condition corresponds to a child of 3-4 years old, and a chimpanzee - to a 4-5-month-old, although the body weight of newborns in large anthropomorphic monkeys is relatively less than in humans. In humans, it is 5.6% of the body weight of an adult, in an orangutan - 4.1, in a gorilla - 2.6, in a chimpanzee - 4.0%.

The growth and development of monkeys after birth occurs faster than in humans. A baby monkey in a helpless state occurs only during the first 2-3 months, and a baby chimpanzee - 5-6 months.

In monkeys, ossification of the wrist and teething occur faster than in humans. So, in a gorilla, the bones of the wrist ossify by 3 years, in humans - by 12-13 years. Milk teeth in a macaque erupt in the interval from 0.5 to 5.5 months, in chimpanzees - from 2.5 to 12.3, in gorillas - from 3 to 13, in humans - from 7.5 to 28.8. Permanent teeth erupt in macaques between 1.8 and 6.4 years, in chimpanzees - from 2.9 to 10.2, in gorillas - from 3 to 10.5, in humans - from 6.2 to 20.5 years.

Monkeys reach puberty faster than humans: lower monkeys - by 3-6 years, higher ones - by 8-10. In humans, better than in monkeys, a pubertal jump is expressed (acceleration of growth in the pubertal period), which is not characteristic of other mammals at all. The increase in the time between the end of feeding and puberty and, as a consequence, the appearance of the puberty jump played an important role in the process of anthropogenesis, since this increased the time for the maturation of the associative zones of the cerebral cortex, and also lengthened the period of childhood, i.e. period of study.

General growth in lower apes ends by 7 years, in large anthropoids - by 11, in humans - by 20 years. In humans, all periods of life are longer, and its total duration is longer: the lower narrow-nosed ones live an average of 25, anthropomorphic - 35 years ...

With the slowdown in the development of the human body compared to monkeys, the fact that an adult retains some "embryonic" structural features, i.e. those that are characteristic of the fruits of humans and monkeys, but then the latter are lost. This phenomenon is called fetalization (foetus - fetus). These features include some features of the human skull, bringing it closer to the skulls of anthropoids in the fetal period and their young forms: a shortened facial and large brain region, a straight convex forehead, a curved base of the skull, a large occipital foramen shifted forward, thin walls, a weakly pronounced relief on the surface of the bones, the absence of a continuous bone ridge above the orbits, a wide open palatine arch, long-term preservation of the sutures.

We also find the similarity of man with the fetuses of anthropomorphic monkeys in some features of the structure of the foot (relative thickness I metatarsal), in a well-developed thumb, in the large width and curvature of the pelvic bones, in the depigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, the absence of a continuous hairline, the large thickness of the lips, etc.

These facts served as the basis for the creation of L. Bolkom's theory of the origin of man through slow development and preservation of the embryonic features of primates in adulthood. Bolk saw the reason for the retardation of human development in the activity of the endocrine glands.

A detailed critique of Bolk's theory was given by Ya.Ya. Roginsky. Along with criticism of Bolk's general theoretical ideas that the evolution of the structure of the human body was determined only by internal morphogenetic causes, Ya.Ya. Roginsky showed that in the process of anthropogenesis, with a delay in the development of some features, there was an acceleration in the development of others. Thus, a large human brain is a consequence of both its longer growth and a huge acceleration of growth after birth: in the first two years of life, the volume of the gorilla skull increases by 36% (from 280 to 380 cm 3), in chimpanzees by 33% (from 240 up to 320 cm 3), in humans - by 227% (from 330 to 1080 cm 3).

In humans, earlier than in higher monkeys, the intermaxillary bone fuses with the maxillary bone, very early (on the 3rd month of intrauterine life) the central bone of the carpus grows to the scaphoid (in monkeys they are separated all their lives or grow together very late), the length of the legs increases much more , the mastoid processes of the skull grow earlier and more, the segments of the sternum and pelvic bones grow together earlier, etc.

In addition, the direction and rate of change of one or another trait may not be the same in different periods of ontogeny. In human evolution, the emergence of such completely new features as the external bone nose, the chin protrusion, some facial muscles, the third peroneal muscle, etc., took place.

At the same time, it turned out that some structural features of the human body associated with upright posture are formed at the early stages of ontogenesis ... This is shown for the development of the calcaneus and talus bones, as well as for the muscles lower limb. Thus, the distribution of the growth rates of the muscles of the hind limb, in contrast to the muscles of the forelimb, is similar in the postnatal period in different mammals. This, apparently, is explained by the greater uniformity of movements of the hind limbs compared to the forelimbs and their greater significance in locomotion ...

The proportions of the limbs in humans and anthropomorphic monkeys in adulthood differ more than in their fetuses. A newborn human has relatively longer arms and shorter legs than an adult, and in this way it resembles an ape.

It has been shown that in the prenatal ontogenesis of mammals, the limbs grow faster than the body, and a craniocaudal gradient is observed in the growth of the limbs - the forelimbs overtake the hind limbs in growth and development. Within each limb, the distal segments grow faster than the proximal ones. Moreover, in the early stages of the uterine period, the hand grows "at the expense" of the wrist and has short fingers, in the later stages the fingers grow intensively. After birth, the character of the growth of the limbs and their segments changes in different mammals in different ways, depending on their mode of locomotion. In primates, after birth, the limbs continue to grow faster than the body, and the hind limbs especially grow; the hand and foot are relatively shortened; the brush is already made (only in a gorilla, which has a very wide brush, it expands); the length of the forearm increases in relation to the length of the shoulder (except for humans and gorillas, which have the shortest forearm among primates) and in most primates, the length of the lower leg in relation to the length of the thigh; the relative length of the thumb decreases in all anthropomorphic apes, except for the gorilla, in which, as in humans, it increases.

In the ontogenesis of primates, two main periods of elongation of the limbs in relation to the body are observed: in the middle of the uterine period, when the forelimbs are especially elongated, and immediately after birth, when the hind limbs are most elongated.

This explains why a person is born relatively long-armed and short-legged and why, in terms of the proportions of the limbs, his fetus is similar to an anthropomorphic monkey. It turned out that anthropomorphic monkeys acquire their characteristic long-armedness in the first period of limb lengthening, intensifying the growth gradient characteristic of this period; a person becomes especially long-legged after birth. Moreover, the intermembrane index decreases in the postnatal period of growth in all primates (except for gibbons, which have exceptionally long arms): in monkeys - from 121 to 106, in chimpanzees - from 146 to 136, in humans - from 104 to 88.

This fact, along with some others, was cited by Ya.Ya. Roginsky to the formulation of the position that the proportions of the body in a particular species of animals change by strengthening or weakening the growth gradients characteristic of a large group to which this species. This rule applies to change and other signs.

So, in all monkeys, an intensive increase in brain weight is noted immediately after birth. It is during this period that a sharp difference in brain mass is formed between humans and anthropomorphic monkeys due to the especially high rate of its growth in humans. After birth, the chewing apparatus is intensively formed in connection with the function of chewing, and it is during this period that the difference between humans and monkeys is formed in terms of the degree of expression of the facial region of the skull.

Significant signs of difference lead to the idea that modern great apes could not be the direct ancestors of man.

Humans and monkeys share about 98 percent genetic similarity, but even the external differences between them are more than obvious. Monkeys hear differently, see differently and physically develop faster.

Structure

Many of the features that distinguish humans from monkeys are immediately noticeable. For example, upright posture. Despite the fact that gorillas may well move on hind legs, for them this is an unnatural process. For a person, the convenience of moving in an upright position is provided by a flexible lumbar deflection, an arched foot and long straight legs, which monkeys lack.

But between man and ape there are distinctive features that only zoologists can tell about. For example, experts note that some of the signs that make a person closer to marine mammals than to primates are a thick fatty layer and skin rigidly attached to a muscular frame.
There are significant differences in the vocal capabilities of humans and monkeys. Thus, our larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than that of any other primate species. The common “tube” formed as a result of this provides a person with exceptional opportunities for a speech resonator.

Brain

The volume of the human brain is almost three times that of the brain of a monkey - 1600 and 600 cm3, which gives us an advantage in the development of mental abilities. In the brain of a monkey, there are no speech centers and zones of association that a person has. This led to the emergence of not only the first signal system (conditioned and unconditioned reflexes), but also the second one, which is responsible for speech forms of communication.
But more recently, British scientists discovered in the human brain a much more noticeable detail that the monkey brain lacks - this is the lateral frontal pole of the prefrontal cortex. It is he who is responsible for strategic planning, task differentiation and decision making.

Hearing

Human hearing is particularly sensitive to the perception of sound frequencies - in the range of approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. But in some monkeys, the ability to distinguish frequencies significantly exceeds that of a human. For example, Philippine tarsiers can hear sounds up to 90,000 Hz.

True, the selective ability of human auditory neurons, which allow us to perceive the difference in sounds that differ by 3-6 Hz, is higher than that of monkeys. Moreover, people have a unique ability to relate sounds to each other.

However, monkeys can also perceive a series of repeated sounds of different pitches, but if this series is shifted a few tones up or down (change the key), then the melodic pattern will be unrecognizable for animals. It is not difficult for a person to guess the same sequence of sounds in different keys.

Childhood

Newborn babies are completely helpless and completely dependent on their parents, while baby monkeys can already hang and move from place to place. Unlike a monkey, a person needs a much longer time to grow up. So, for example, a female gorilla reaches puberty by the age of 8, given that her gestation period is almost the same as that of a woman.

In newborn children, unlike monkey cubs, instincts are much less developed - a person receives most of the life skills in the learning process. It is important to note that a person is formed in the process of direct communication with his own kind, while a monkey is born with an already established form of its existence.

Sexuality

By virtue of innate instincts, the male monkey is always able to recognize when the female is ovulating. Humans don't have this ability. But there is a more significant difference between humans and monkeys: this is the occurrence of menopause in humans. The only exception in the animal world is the black dolphin.
Man and monkey differ in the structure of the genital organs. So, not a single great ape has a hymen. On the other hand, the male genital organ of any primate contains gutter bone (cartilage), which is absent in humans. There is one more characteristic feature concerning sexual behavior. Face-to-face sexual intercourse, so popular with humans, is unnatural for monkeys.

Genetics

Geneticist Steve Jones once observed that "50% of human DNA is similar to that of bananas, but this does not mean at all that we are half bananas, either from head to waist or from waist to toe." The same can be said when comparing man with a monkey. The minimal difference in the genotype of humans and monkeys - about 2% - nevertheless forms a huge gap between the species.
The difference includes about 150 million unique nucleotides, which contain about 50 million individual mutation events. Such changes, according to scientists, cannot be achieved even on an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations, which once again refutes the theory of human origin from higher primates.

Significant differences between humans and monkeys are also in the set of chromosomes: if we have 46 of them, then gorillas and chimpanzees have 48. Moreover, there are genes in human chromosomes that are absent in chimpanzees, which reflects the difference between immune system man and animal. Another interesting genetic claim is that the human Y chromosome is as different from the similar chimpanzee chromosome as it is from the chicken Y chromosome.

There is also a difference in the size of the genes. When comparing human and chimpanzee DNA, it was found that the monkey genome is 12% larger than the human genome. And the difference in the expression of human and monkey genes in the cerebral cortex was expressed in 17.4%.
A genetic study by scientists from London has revealed possible cause which monkeys are unable to speak. So they determined that the FOXP2 gene plays an important role in the formation of the speech apparatus in humans. Geneticists decided on a desperate experiment and introduced the FOXP2 gene to a chimpanzee, in the hope that the monkey would speak. But nothing of the kind happened - the zone responsible for the functions of speech in humans, in chimpanzees, regulates the vestibular apparatus. The ability to climb trees in the course of evolution for the monkey turned out to be much more important than the development of verbal communication skills.

The difference between you and the monkeys.

Dmitry Kurovsky

Physical differences

genetic differences

Differences in behavior

mental differences

Human spirituality is unique

In modern society, through almost all information channels, we are forced to believe that humans are biologically close to monkeys. And that science has discovered such a similarity between human DNA and chimpanzees that leaves no doubt about their origin from a common ancestor. Is it true? Are humans really just evolved apes?

It is remarkable that human DNA allows us to perform complex calculations, write poetry, build cathedrals, walk on the moon, while chimpanzees catch and eat each other's fleas. As information accumulates, the gap between humans and apes becomes more and more obvious. To date, science has discovered many differences between us and monkeys, but most people, unfortunately, do not know this. Some of these differences are listed below. They cannot be explained by minor internal changes, rare mutations, or survival of the fittest.

Physical differences

Tails - where did they go? There is no intermediate state "between the tails".

Many primates and most mammals make their own vitamin C. 1We, as the "strongest", obviously lost this ability "somewhere on the way to survival."

Our newborns are different from baby animals. Their sense organs are quite developed, the weight of the brain and body is much larger than that of monkeys, but with all this, our babies helpless and more dependent on their parents. They can neither stand nor run, while newborn monkeys can hang and move from place to place. Gorilla babies can stand on their feet 20 weeks after birth, but human babies only 43 weeks later. Is this progress? During the first year of life, a person develops functions that are present in young animals even before birth.1

People need a long childhood. Chimpanzees and gorillas mature at 11 or 12 years of age. This fact is contrary to evolution, since, logically, the survival of the fittest should require a shorter period of childhood.1

We have different skeletal structures. The human being as a whole is structured quite differently. Our torso is shorter, while in monkeys it is longer than the lower limbs.

Monkeys have long arms and short legs. We, on the contrary, have short arms and long legs. The arms of the higher apes are so long that, having taken a slightly bent position, they can reach the ground with them. Cartoonists use this feature and paint long arms on people to whom they are not disposed.

A person has a special S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves, the monkeys do not have a curved spine. Man has the largest total number of vertebrae.

Humans have 12 pairs of ribs, while chimpanzees have 13 pairs.

In humans, the rib cage is deeper and barrel-shaped., while the chimpanzee has a cone shape. In addition, a cross section of chimpanzee ribs shows that they are rounder than human ribs.

Monkey feet look like their hands- they have thumb the legs are mobile, directed to the side and opposed to the rest of the fingers, resembling the thumb. In humans, the big toe points forward and is not opposed to the rest, otherwise we could, having thrown off our shoes, easily lift objects with the thumb or even start writing with our foot.

Human feet are unique– they promote bipedal walking and cannot be compared with appearance and the function of the monkey's foot.2 The toes on the human foot are relatively straight, not crooked like those of monkeys. Not a single monkey has such a repulsive foot as a person, which means that not a single monkey is able to walk like people - with long steps and leave human footprints.

Monkeys have no arch in their feet! When walking, our foot thanks to the arch cushions all loads, shocks and impacts. No animal is known to have a springy arch of the foot. If a person descended from ancient monkeys, then his arch should have appeared in the foot “from scratch”. However, the springy vault is not just a small detail, but a complex mechanism. Without him, our life would be very different. Just imagine a world without bipedalism, sports, games and long walks! When moving on the ground, the monkeys rest on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs.

The structure of the human kidney is unique. 4

A person does not have a continuous hairline: if man shares a common ancestor with monkeys, where did the thick hair from the monkey body go? Our body is relatively hairless (flaw) and completely devoid of tactile hair. No other intermediate, partially hairy species are known.1

Humans have a thick layer of fat that apes don't have. This makes our skin look more like a dolphin's skin. one Fat layer allows us to stay in cool water for a long time without the risk of hypothermia.

Human skin is rigidly attached to the muscular frame, which is characteristic only of marine mammals.

Humans are the only land creatures capable of consciously holding their breath. This seemingly “insignificant detail” is very important, since an indispensable condition for the ability to speak is a high degree of conscious control of breathing, which in us is not similar to any other animal living on land.1

Desperate to find a terrestrial "missing link" and based on these unique human properties, some evolutionists have seriously suggested that we evolved from aquatic animals!

Only humans have the whites of their eyes. All monkeys have completely dark eyes. The ability to determine the eyes of other people's intentions and emotions is an exclusively human privilege. Coincidence or design? From the eyes of a monkey it is absolutely impossible to understand not only her feelings, but even the direction of her gaze.

The contour of the human eye is elongated in an unusual way in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.

Humans have a distinct chin, but monkeys do not. In humans, the jaw is reinforced by a chin protrusion - a special roller that runs along the lower edge of the jawbone, and is unknown in any of the monkeys.

Most animals, including chimpanzees, have large mouths. We have a small mouth with which we can better articulate.

Wide and twisted lips- a characteristic feature of a person; higher apes have very thin lips.

Unlike the higher apes, a person has a protruding nose with a well-developed elongated tip.

Only humans can grow long hair on the head.

Among primates, only humans are found Blue eyes and curly hair. 1

We have a unique speech apparatus providing the finest articulation and articulate speech.

In humans, the larynx occupies a much lower position. in relation to the mouth than in monkeys. Due to this, our pharynx and mouth form a common “tube”, which plays an important role as a speech resonator. This ensures the best resonance - necessary condition to pronounce vowels. Interestingly, the drooping larynx is a disadvantage: unlike other primates, humans cannot eat or drink and breathe at the same time without choking.

Man has a special language- thicker, taller and more mobile than monkeys. And we have multiple muscle attachments to the hyoid bone.

Humans have fewer interconnected jaw muscles than apes,- we do not have bone structures for their attachment (very important for the ability to speak).

Man is the only primate whose face is not covered with hair.

The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous brow ridges. 4

human skull has an upright face with protruding nasal bones, while the monkey skull has a sloping face with flat nasal bones.5

Different structure of teeth. We have a closed diastema, that is, a gap that includes protruding fangs in primates; various forms, inclinations and chewing surfaces of different teeth. In humans, the jaw is smaller and the dental arch is parabolic, anterior section has a rounded shape. Monkeys have a U-shaped dental arch. Canine teeth are shorter in humans, while all great apes have protruding fangs.

Why are our faces so different from the animal "images" of monkeys? Where do we get a complex speech apparatus from? How plausible is the assertion that all these unique characteristics involved in communication were “gifted” to a person by random mutations and selection?

Only humans have the whites of their eyes, thanks to which our eyes can convey almost all emotions. The ability to determine the eyes of other people's intentions and emotions is an exclusively human privilege. From the eyes of a monkey it is absolutely impossible to understand not only her feelings, but even the direction of her gaze. The contour of the human eye is unusually elongated in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.

Humans can exercise fine motor control that apes don't have, and perform delicate physical operations thanks to unique connection of nerves with muscles. In a recent study, Alan Walker, an evolutionary biologist at Pennsylvania National University, found "differences in the muscle structure of chimpanzees and humans."6 In an interview, Walker stated, "It is clear that our muscle fibers do not contract all at once. It turns out that in the human body there is an inhibition of the brain function, which keeps the muscular system from damage. Unlike humans, great apes do not have this inhibition (or do, but not to the same degree).”6

Humans have more motor neurons controlling muscle movements than in chimpanzees. However, in order to be truly effective, all of these motor neurons must be properly connected, according to the overall plan. This plan, like many others, belongs only to people.6

The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightfully be called a design marvel.7 Articulation in the human hand is much more complex and skillful than that of primates, as a result of which only a person can work with different tools. A person can gesticulate with a brush, as well as clench it into a fist. The human wrist is more mobile than the stiff wrist of a chimpanzee.

Our thumb well developed, strongly opposed to the rest and very mobile. Monkeys have hooked hands with a short and weak thumb. No element of culture would exist without our unique thumb! Coincidence or design?

The human hand is capable of two unique contractions that monkeys cannot do., - precise (eg, holding a baseball) and power (grabbing the bar with your hand). 7 The chimpanzee cannot produce a strong grip, while the application of force is the main component of the power grip. Precise grasping is used for movements that require precision and care. Accuracy is achieved thanks to the thumb and many types of finger squeezes. Interestingly, these two types of grasping are a unique property of the human hand and in nature no one else is found. Why do we have this "exception"?

In humans, the fingers are straight, shorter and more mobile than in chimpanzees.

Human and monkey foot.

These unique attributes of man confirm the story of Genesis—they were given to him as part of his ability to “subdue the earth and have dominion over animals,” to create and change the world (Genesis 1:28). They reflect the gulf that separates us from the apes.

Only man has true upright posture.. Sometimes, when the monkeys are carrying food, they can walk or run on two limbs. However, the distance they cover in this way is rather limited. In addition, the way monkeys walk on two limbs is completely different from walking on two legs. The particular human approach requires the intricate integration of the many skeletal and muscular features of our hips, legs, and feet.5

Humans are able to support their body weight on their feet while walking because our hips converge to our knees to form with the tibia. unique bearing angle at 9 degrees (in other words, we have "turned knees"). Conversely, chimpanzees and gorillas have widely spaced, straight legs with a bearing angle almost equal to zero. These animals distribute their body weight on their feet while walking, rocking the body from side to side and moving with the familiar “monkey gait”.8

The special positioning of our ankle joint allows the tibia to make direct movements relative to the foot while walking.

The human femur has a special edge for muscle attachment (Linea aspera), which is absent in great apes.5

In humans, the position of the pelvis relative to the longitudinal axis of the body is unique, in addition, the very structure of the pelvis differs significantly from the pelvis of monkeys - all this is necessary for upright walking. We have a relative width of wings ilium the pelvis (width/length x 100) is much larger (125.5) than that of a chimpanzee (66.0). When viewed from above, these fenders curve forward like the knuckle handles on an airplane. Unlike humans, the wings of the iliac bones in monkeys protrude to the sides, like the handlebars of a bicycle. With such a pelvis, the monkey is simply not able to walk like a person! Based on this feature alone, it can be argued that a person is fundamentally different from a monkey.

Humans have unique knees- they can be fixed at full extension, making the patella stable, and are located closer to the middle sagittal plane, being under the center of gravity of our body.

The human femur is longer than the chimpanzee femur and usually has an elevated rough line that holds the rough line femur under the handle.8

The person has true inguinal ligament, which the great apes do not have.4

The human head is placed on top of the spine, while in great apes it is "suspended" forward, and not up. We have a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spine.

The man has a large vaulted skull, taller and more rounded. Monkey skull box simplified.5

The human brain is far more complex than the monkey brain.. It is about 2.5 times larger than the brain of higher monkeys in terms of volume and 3–4 times in mass. Humans have a highly developed cortex cerebral hemispheres, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located. Unlike apes, only humans have a complete sylvian sulcus, consisting of anterior horizontal, anterior ascending, and posterior branches.

The gestation period in humans is the longest among primates. For some, this may be another fact that contradicts the theory of evolution.

Human hearing is different from that of chimpanzees and most other apes. Human hearing is characterized by a relatively high sensitivity of perception - from two to four kilohertz - it is in this frequency range that we hear important sound information in spoken speech. Chimpanzee ears are relatively insensitive to such frequencies. Their auditory system is most strongly tuned to sounds that peak at either one kilohertz or eight kilohertz.

A recent study has discovered even finer tuning and the selective ability of individual cells located in the human auditory cortex: "A single human auditory neuron has shown an amazing ability to distinguish subtle differences in frequencies, up to one tenth of an octave - and this is compared to a cat's sensitivity of about one octave and half a full octave in a monkey.”9 This level of recognition is not needed for simple speech discrimination, but is necessary for to listen to music and appreciate all its beauty.

Why are there such inexplicable differences as being born face down rather than up, the ability to walk on two legs, and speech? Why do monkeys never need a haircut? Why do people need such a sensitive ear, except to enjoy music?

The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightly be called a miracle of design. It is capable of two compressions that monkeys cannot do - precise and power. A chimpanzee cannot produce a strong contraction. Precise grasping is used for movements that require precision and care. Interestingly, these two types of grasping are a unique property of the human hand and are not found in nature anywhere else. Why do we have this "exception"?

Differences in behavior

Humans are the only creatures able to cry, expressing strong emotional experiences. 1 Only man sheds tears in sorrow.

We are the only ones who are able to laugh, reacting to a joke or expressing emotions. 1 The "smile" of a chimpanzee is purely ritual, functional and has nothing to do with feelings. By showing their teeth, they make it clear to their relatives that there is no aggression in their actions. The "laugh" of the monkeys sounds completely different and more like the sounds of a breathless dog, or an asthma attack in humans. Even the physical aspect of laughter is different: humans laugh only on the exhale, while monkeys laugh on both the exhale and inhale.

In monkeys, adult males never provide food for others. 4 in man is the main duty of men.

We are the only creatures that blush due to relatively minor events. one

Man builds houses and makes fire. The lower apes do not take care of housing at all, the higher apes build only temporary nests. four

None of the primates can swim like humans. We are the only ones whose heart rate automatically slows down when immersed in water and moves in it, and does not increase, as in land animals.

The social life of people is expressed in the formation of the state is a purely human phenomenon. The main (but not the only) difference between human society and the relations of domination and subordination formed by primates lies in people's awareness of their semantic meaning.

Monkeys have a rather small territory, and the man is big. 4

Our newborn children have weak instincts; most of their skills they acquire in the learning process. Man, unlike monkeys, acquires its own special form of existence "in freedom", in an open relationship with living beings and, above all, with people, while an animal is born with an already established form of its existence.

"Relative Hearing" is a purely human ability.. 23 Humans have a unique ability to recognize pitch based on the relationship between sounds. This ability is called "relative pitch". Some animals, such as birds, can easily recognize a series of repeated sounds, but if the notes are shifted a little down or up (i.e., change the key), the melody becomes completely unrecognizable to birds. Only humans can guess a melody whose key has been changed even a semitone up or down. The relative hearing of a person is another confirmation of the uniqueness of a person.

people wear clothes. Man is the only creature that looks out of place without clothes. All animals look funny in clothes!

For an overview of the many abilities we often take for granted, read on. "Talents: Unappreciated Gifts".

A person at birth goes through the transformations described above, associated with the change of the aquatic environment to the air; moreover, it exhibits all the features that have arisen in the process of evolution, due to physiological changes similar to those that accompany the transition from an aqueous environment to an air environment in other animals.

Homo sapiens, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans share a common ancestor and are among the great primates. The two main features in which man differs from the great apes are absent at birth, although it is generally believed that he already has them. These signs - the large size of the brain and skeletal changes that make the vertical position of the body possible - arise as a result of physiological changes that occur during the period of postnatal development. This is of great evolutionary importance, indicating that such characters are not innate species characteristics, but arise as a result of physiological changes that occur in the later stages of development. In humans, brain volume continues to increase long after birth, while in chimpanzees it increases only slightly. The same applies to walking on two legs.

Rice. 7. Change in the curvature of the human spine during growth. The newborn has only one bulge backwards, like a gorilla

In a newborn child, the spine is curved in the same way as in a gorilla moving on two limbs, i.e. has one curve convex back. At the age of three months, the first change appears - a bend in the cervical region, and by nine months - the second change, which creates a compensatory bend in the lumbar region, which basically ensures the vertical position of the body. There are other changes, in particular in the structure of the pelvis, which forms the bottom abdominal cavity, i.e. occupies a completely different position in humans than in quadrupeds. Thus, only after reaching the age of nine months the human body is sufficiently changed to assume an upright position. What kind of signals initiate such changes? At present, this is not yet fully established. However, the skeletal and muscular differences between humans and great apes are only slightly more pronounced than those between males and females, whose pelvis has a different shape and musculature. As you know, these differences are of a hormonal nature and depend on the activity of the parathyroid glands and adrenal glands, which send chemical signals that affect bone tissue and muscle contractions, respectively. Thus, the changes that result in a person becoming a quadruped to a biped can be caused mainly by chemical signals of the hormonal type. From an evolutionary point of view, this means that such a transformation does not require new structural genes that are characteristic of only one species. homo sapiens, and that it can easily be achieved as a result of changes at the level of regulatory DNA. In addition, this transformation occurs quickly - in one individual and in a few months.

Human evolution seems to have depended mainly on changes at the level of regulatory DNA rather than at the level of structural genes.

The above considerations are confirmed by the data collected over the past 10 years on the genetic similarity between humans and great apes. In contrast to expectations based on ideas about random mutations, the analysis of genomes showed the following.

1. A detailed study of the colored transverse discs that form permanent patterns in the chromosomes revealed their striking similarity in orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.

2. About 400 genes have been localized in human chromosomes. Forty of them are found in great apes, and in most cases on the same chromosomes.

3. The DNA homology of higher primates is also confirmed by DNA/DNA hybridization experiments. The differences between the nucleotide sequences of human and chimpanzee DNA are approximately 1.1% and affect mainly non-transcribed regions in which regulatory DNA is localized.

4. These homologies are also found in proteins. The similarity between the amino acid sequences of 44 chimpanzee and human proteins exceeds 99%.

5. King and Wilson concluded from their research that the major morphological and physiological differences between humans and chimpanzees may be the result of regulatory changes at the level of gene expression rather than point mutations in structural genes.

Man and chimpanzee belong not only to different species, but also to different genera and families. Man belongs to the family. Hominidae, chimpanzees - to the family. Pongidae. Therefore, there must be some kind of transformation leading to such a large modification that it can cause a difference that separates families without causing significant changes in structural genes.

The latest paleontological evidence supports the possibility of a sudden emergence of species.

Verba has done extensive research on the evolution of African mammals from the Miocene to the modern era. It determined the duration of the existence of species in antelopes and other groups. Vrba concluded that there were synchronous waves that led to the sudden appearance hallmarks then persisted for long periods of time. As she points out, these data are in favor of not sequential speciation based on the accumulation of small changes, but a sudden explosion of specific characters, which then became fixed.

Species, genera, and families can arise in many ways.

According to the generally accepted point of view, species arise mainly by: 1) mutations of structural genes, i.e. genes that determine protein synthesis; 2) chromosomal rearrangements; 3) random events; 4) numerous small and sequential genetic changes; 5) slow process of transformation. This further leads to the transformation of species into genera and genera into families.

The data currently available indicate that very different mechanisms may be involved in these evolutionary processes. In addition, not one, but several mechanisms can be used in speciation.

1. Each transformation was conditioned by the order given by the initial organization of the mineral components of the cell and the preservation of several nucleotide sequences of DNA from prokaryotes and eukaryotes to humans.

2. Modifications of mineral components, for example, as a result of changes in membrane permeability, may be involved in the transformation of species, since they affect the basic types of structures.

3. Changes in physical factors, such as gravity, which lead to changes in the layered distribution of macromolecular components in a fertilized egg, cannot be excluded from these processes. Modifications caused by chemical and physical factors can be passed on to offspring because the separation between somatic cells and germline cells is not as strict as previously thought.

4. The participation of changes in structural genes is not excluded, but they probably depend mainly on the physicochemical limitations inherent in the structure of the cell and DNA.

5. In addition, the evolution of DNA may depend on the internal and external environment. It is known that such a physical factor as temperature channels the nucleotide composition of DNA. It can be expected that in higher vertebrates, such as birds and mammals, thermoregulation, which ensures the constancy of cell temperature, channels changes in the nucleotide sequences of both structural and regulatory regions of DNA.

6. The significance of chromosomal rearrangements, which have so often been called the source of species transformation, is quite obvious. However, the impression is created that they arise and are maintained by ordered processes, due mainly to the initial structure of the chromosome. The ordering that determines the optimal gene territories within the centromere-telomeric field should have participated in their establishment.

7. Both internal and external factors are involved in the sudden formation of additional copies of specific DNA sequences. The number of copies can be regulated by the chromosome itself. Their sharp change can also be caused by environmental factors.

8. Along with the obvious slow changes, fast changes are also possible. This is explained by the fact that many abrupt structural and functional changes occur without the participation of structural genes; they are determined by changes in regulatory DNA and even external factors affecting hormone secretion. Structural genes seem to play a modest role in evolution compared to the role of regulatory DNA nucleotide sequences.

9. The initial processes leading to the transformation of species, genera and families do not always proceed slowly. Slow are, apparently, later events generated by various kinds of small adjustments. A major transformation does not require millions of years or thousands of random mutations. The results of the study of autoevolution make it possible to formulate a more versatile and coherent concept of species transformation.

To this we can add that the extinction of species as a result of catastrophes is not necessary: ​​perhaps they have some kind of clock that determines the duration of their existence. The presence in mammals of a clock that limits the number of somatic cell divisions is well known. It is possible that these cellular clocks also manifest themselves at the species level.

State educational institution of higher vocational education

"East Siberian State Academy of Education"

Man and monkey. Similarities and differences

Performed:

Ropel Alina

Group 2b3

Irkutsk 2010

1. Introduction

2. Evidence of human animal origin

3. Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals

4. Conclusion

5. Bibliographic list

1. INTRODUCTION

Great apes resemble humans in many ways. They express feelings of joy, anger, sadness, gently caress the cubs, take care of them, punish them for disobedience. They have a good memory, highly developed higher nervous activity.

J.B. Lamarck proposed a hypothesis about the origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched from climbing trees to walking upright. As a result, their body straightened, the foot changed. The need for communication led to speech. In 1871 Ch. Darwin's work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" was published. In it, he proves the kinship of man with great apes, using data from comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology. At the same time, Darwin rightly believed that not a single living ape can be considered a direct ancestor of man.

similarity difference human monkey

2. PROOF OF THE ANIMAL ORIGIN OF MAN

Man belongs to mammals, as he has a diaphragm, mammary glands, differentiated teeth (incisors, canines and molars), auricles, his embryo develops in utero. Humans have the same organs and organ systems as other mammals: circulatory, respiratory, excretory, digestive, etc.

Similarities can be traced in the development of human and animal embryos. Human development begins with a single fertilized egg. Due to its division, new cells are formed, tissues and organs of the embryo are formed. At the stage of 1.5-3 months of intrauterine development, the caudal spine is developed in the human fetus, gill slits are laid. The brain of a month-old fetus resembles the brain of a fish, and a seven-month-old fetus resembles the brain of a monkey. In the fifth month of intrauterine development, the embryo has a hairline, which subsequently disappears. Thus, in many respects, the human embryo resembles the embryos of other vertebrates.

The behavior of man and higher animals is very similar. The similarity between humans and anthropoid apes is especially great. They are characterized by the same conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. In monkeys, like in humans, one can observe developed facial expressions, care for offspring. In chimpanzees, for example, as in humans, there are 4 blood types. Humans and monkeys suffer from diseases that do not affect other mammals, such as cholera, influenza, smallpox, tuberculosis. Chimpanzees walk on their hind limbs, they do not have a tail. The genetic material of humans and chimpanzees is 99% identical.

Monkeys have a well-developed brain, including the forebrain hemispheres. In humans and monkeys, the terms of pregnancy and the patterns of embryonic development coincide. As monkeys age, their teeth fall out and their hair turns gray. An important evidence of human animal origin is the development of signs of distant ancestors (hairiness of the body, external tail, multi-mammary) and underdeveloped organs and signs that have lost their functional significance, of which there are more than 90 in humans (ear muscles, Darwin's tubercle on auricle, semilunar fold of the inner corner of the eye, appendix, etc.).

The greatest resemblance to a person in terms of such features as body proportions, relatively short upper limbs, the structure of the pelvis, hand and foot, has a gorilla; chimpanzees are similar to humans in the structural features of the skull (large roundness and smoothness), the size of the limbs. An orangutan, like a human, has 12 ribs. But this does not mean that man is descended from any of the current species of monkeys. These facts indicate that man and great apes had a common ancestor, which gave a number of branches, and evolution went in different directions.

The scientific study of the intelligence of monkeys began with Charles Darwin. He owns a book that today remains a classic in its field - "On the Expression of Sensations in Man and Animals" (1872). In it, in particular, it is shown that the facial expressions of monkeys are similar to those of humans. Darwin considered this a consequence of the similarity of facial musculature in primates.

He also determined that facial expressions, the expression of emotions are, one might say, a means of communication. Darwin also announced such a detail: the great ape is able to mimic almost all human emotions, except for amazement, surprise and disgust.

Many neurological diseases man and chimpanzee and even other monkeys are very similar. Relatively recently, it became known that the monkey is the only animal that has been successfully used in psychiatric research: in studying the model of isolation, phobia, depression, hysteria, neurasthenia, autism and other features of schizophrenia. A satisfactory model of human psychosis can be obtained from the "social" isolation of monkeys.

At present, important results, already used in practice, have been obtained by studying the model of human depression on lower monkeys. Various forms of major depression in monkeys usually developed as a result of separation of monkeys from an object of affection, such as a baby from his mother, which affected both of them severely. The symptomatology of depression in monkeys is in many respects parallel to similar conditions in children and adults: depressed mood, sleep disturbance, lack of appetite, a clear decrease in motor activity, loss of interest in games. It has been shown that cubs of different species of macaques isolated from their peers or from mothers, just like the females themselves, develop disorders cellular immunity similar to those that occur in adults after a bereavement. The state of depression in monkeys can last for years, and most importantly, already in the adult state, the animal turns out to be biologically inferior, and it is extremely difficult to cure it. Separation causes not only depression, but also other disorders, each time associated with the "personal" life history of each individual.

The emotions of monkeys (not necessarily higher, but also lower!) are not just similar to human ones. They often appear "humanly"; the heart of an irritated baboon is ready to jump out of his chest, but he hides his indignation from others, is "calm", slowed down, and, conversely, the animal unambiguously threatens the enemy, demonstrates formidable fangs and sharply raises his eyebrows, and there are no changes in vegetative functions. (It may be noted that arterial pressure, and an electrocardiogram, the heart rate in monkeys is the same as in humans).

The higher apes are amenable to hypnosis, which can be induced in them by conventional methods. It has recently been shown that gorillas predominantly use right hand, and this indicates a brain asymmetry in monkeys, similar to the asymmetry of the human brain.

A particularly large neurological and behavioral similarity between humans and higher apes was established in infancy and in childhood. Psychomotor development in a baby chimpanzee and a child proceeds in the same way.

The immobility of the ear of monkeys and humans is unique, which is why they have to turn their heads in the same direction in order to hear better in the direction of the sound source. It has been proven that chimpanzees distinguish between 22 colors, up to 7 shades of one tone. There is evidence of similarities in higher primates of smell, taste, touch, and even perception of the weight of the weights lifted. Studying various representatives of vertebrates, physiologists trace the path of development and gradual complication of the higher nervous activity of animals, their ability to store in memory developed conditioned reflexes.

We can say that man, chimpanzee and orangutan are the only creatures on Earth that recognize themselves in the mirror! The authors talk about the presence of self-recognizing monkeys in elementary ideas about their own "I". Many consider self-recognition to be the highest form of associative behavior in the animal kingdom. Chimpanzee in different situations makes the most adequate decision: excellently uses a lever, a key, a screwdriver, a stick, a stone and other objects, searches for and finds them if they are not at hand.

3. DIFFERENCES IN THE STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS

Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.

In monkeys, the spine is arched, while in humans it has four bends, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot that softens the concussion of the internal organs when walking, a wide rib cage, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, structural features of muscles and internal organs.

A number of structural features of a person are associated with his labor activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to other fingers, so that the hand can perform a variety of actions. The cerebral part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial one due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm3 (in monkeys - 600 cm3), the chin is well developed on the lower jaw.

The big differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the first to life on trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The essential differences between man and animals lie in the fact that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, the release of hands and their use as labor organs for the manufacture of tools, articulate speech as a method of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subjugates, actively changes it according to his needs, he himself creates the necessary things.

4. SIMILARITIES OF HUMANS AND APES

The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

Monkeys have concrete thinking.

Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, leaning on their hands.

On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

In humans and monkeys common diseases(influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

Biochemical evidence for human-monkey affinity :

the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

Cytological evidence of the proximity of man and monkeys:

humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

CONCLUSION

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and allow us to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is proof of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans", which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative originality and significance of social factors in the historical development of man.

The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our most ancient ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to a straight gait. AT labor activity developed articulate speech and public life man, with whom, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is conditioned only by biological laws, then human psyche is the result of social development and influence.

Man is a social being who has created a majestic civilization.

REFERENCES

1. Panov E.N. Zykova L.Yu. Behavior of animals and humans: similarities and differences. Pushchino-on-Oka, 1989.

2. Sifard R.M., Chini D.L. Mind and thinking in monkeys // In the world of science. 1993. No. 2-3.

3. Stolyarenko V.E., Stolyarenko L.D. "Anthropology - a systematic science of man", M .: "Phoenix", 2004.

4. Khomutov A. "Anthropology", M.: "Phoenix", 2004.

5. Reader on zoopsychology and comparative psychology: Tutorial/ Comp. M.N. Sotskaya MGPPU, 2003.

6. Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. "Anthropology. Textbook. Edition 4, Moscow: MGU, 2005.

7. Yarskaya-Smirnova E.R., Romanov P.V. "Social Anthropology", M.: social protection, 2004.