The human respiratory system. Respiratory system Human respiratory system questions assignments with the exam

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OGE tasks on the topic "Respiratory system".

one). What disease can a doctor detect with a human chest x-ray? 1) tuberculosis 2) hypertension 3) stomach ulcer 4) gastritis

2). Where does carbon dioxide form in the human body? 1) muscle fibers 2) glottis 3) mature erythrocytes 4) intercellular substance

3). What organ of the respiratory system is made up of cartilaginous semirings? 1) lung 2) pharynx 3) larynx 4) trachea

four). What are the consequences of smoking tobacco? 1) to the death of cells of the ciliated epithelium of the airways 2) to the expansion of small bronchi and blood flow 3) to rarer and deeper breathing 4) to the expansion of blood vessels

5). In a smoker, gas exchange in the lungs is less efficient, because he 1) develops hypertension 2) activity worsens nerve centers 3) the walls of the alveoli are covered with foreign substances 4) mucosal cells die respiratory tract

6). Which human organ is shown in the picture? 1) circulatory 2) excretory 3) digestive 4) respiratory

7). The likelihood of tuberculosis in humans increases with 1) overweight 2) contact with animals 3) high light 4) living in a room with high humidity

eight). What are the consequences of smoking tobacco? 1) to the expansion of blood vessels 2) to the death of cells of the ciliated epithelium of the airways 3) to the expansion of small bronchi 4) to less frequent breathing

9). What disease is transmitted by airborne droplets? 1) malaria 2) anemia 3) influenza 4) gastritis

ten). Gas exchange in humans during breathing takes place in 1) pulmonary alveoli 2) nasal cavity 3) larynx and trachea 4) bronchi

11. What increases the vital capacity of the lungs? 1) extensibility of lung tissue 2) activation of humoral regulation 3) development of intercostal muscles and diaphragm 4) increase in blood velocity

12. Are judgments about respiratory movements in the human body? A. In a calm state of a person, inhalation is carried out due to the contraction of the intercostal muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm. B. When exhaling, under the influence of gravity, the ribs descend, the muscles of the diaphragm relax. 1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both judgments are true 4) both judgments are wrong

13. In which of the following parts of the respiratory system does gas exchange take place between blood and air? 1) alveoli 2) bronchi 3) trachea 4) nasopharynx

14. An increase in the concentration of what substance in the blood causes excitation of the respiratory center? 1) oxygen 2) nitrogen 3) carbon dioxide 4) glucose

15. Why is the use of alcohol and smoking dangerous for the health of not only the person himself, but also his offspring? 1) It contributes to the development of hypertension. 2) It increases the risk of lung cancer. 3) It destroys the lining of the alimentary canal. 4) It causes disruption of embryonic development.

16. What change occurs with the diaphragm during inspiration? 1) contracts and becomes convex 2) contracts and becomes flat 3) relaxes and bends towards the chest cavity 4) bends to the side abdominal cavity

17. How should one begin to provide assistance to an unconscious victim? 1) unfasten the tight collar and loosen the belt 2) check for a pulse on the carotid artery 3) proceed with cardiopulmonary resuscitation 4) bring a cotton swab with ammonia to the nose

18. Oxygen enters the intercellular space from a blood vessel because the pressure in it is 1) lower than in the vessel 2) higher than in the vessel 3) equal to the pressure in the vessel 4) constantly changing

20. Are the judgments about the exchange of gases in the lungs in humans correct? A. The essence of the penetration of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood, and carbon dioxide from the blood into the alveoli of the lungs is that the molecules of any gas, if their concentration is high, tend to penetrate through membranes that are permeable to them to where they are few. B. Diffusion of gases (O 2 and CO 2) continues until their concentration on both sides of the permeable shell becomes the same. 1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both judgments are true 4) both judgments are wrong

21. What layer of cells in the nasal cavity helps to purify the air inhaled by a person? 1) ciliated epithelium 2) muscle tissue 3) blood 4) cartilage tissue

22. What should be done to clear the victim's airways from water? 1) give the victim a sitting position, and put a roller under the head 2) put the victim on the rescuer’s knee face down and press on the back 3) apply a pressure bandage on the chest and raise the victim’s legs 4) put a warm heating pad on the victim’s chest and wrap him in a blanket

23. A branched structure in the respiratory system has 1) trachea 2) larynx 3) bronchus 4) alveolus

24. In case of improper organization of stove heating, the main danger is 1) carbon dioxide 2) nitrogen 3) carbon monoxide 4) water vapor

25. Who needs to wear a gauze mask covering the mouth and nose and why? 1) to a healthy person in public places, so as not to get infected from others 2) to a healthy person all the time, so as not to become infected with airborne viruses 3) to a sick person in public places, so as not to infect others 4) to a sick person all the time, so as not to increase the number airborne viruses

26. In winter, the air temperature in the respiratory tract 1) is equal to the temperature of inhaled air 2) significantly exceeds body temperature 3) is much lower than body temperature 4) reaches body temperature

27. What letter in the figure indicates the organ in which sounds are formed? 1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D

28. In what sequence should artificial respiration and heart massage be performed? 1) one exhale - four presses on the sternum 2) one press on the sternum - four exhalations 3) two exhalations - five presses on the sternum 4) three exhalations - three presses on the sternum

29. Oxygen is used by the human body in the process of 1) the conversion of glucose into glycogen 2) the oxidation of mineral substances 3) the biosynthesis of proteins, fats and carbohydrates 4) the oxidation of organic substances with the release of energy

30. Gas exchange between blood and atmospheric air occurs in 1) muscle cells 2) pulmonary vesicles 3) arteries 4) veins

31. In the alveoli of the lungs in humans, 1) oxidation of organic substances occurs 2) synthesis of organic substances 3) diffusion of oxygen into the blood 4) purification of air from dust

32. If the lungs are injured, first of all, it is necessary to 1) perform artificial respiration 2) firmly fix the chest on exhalation 3) perform indirect massage heart 4) put the victim on the stomach

33. What blood cells carry oxygen from lungs to tissues? 1) phagocytes 2) erythrocytes 3) lymphocytes 4) platelets

34. Gas exchange in arteries and veins does not occur due to the fact that 1) they are lined with epithelial tissue 2) blood pressure in them is not enough 3) blood flows at a high speed 4) they have thick and multilayer walls

35. Oxygen comes from the alveoli of the lungs into the blood because its pressure in them is 1) equal to its pressure in the blood 2) less than its pressure in the blood 3) more than its pressure in the blood 4) constantly changing

36. Human breathing is regulated by 1) medulla oblongata 2) spinal cord 3) cerebellum 4) midbrain

37. The presence of air in the pleural cavity is a consequence of 1) damage to the membranes 2) professional sports 3) many years of smoking 4) damage to the respiratory center

38. In what cavity of the human body is the pulmonary trunk located? 1) pelvic 2) skull 3) abdominal 4) thoracic

39. In case of a penetrating injury to the lungs, first of all, it is necessary to 1) perform artificial respiration 2) firmly fix the chest on exhalation 3) perform an indirect heart massage 4) put the victim on the stomach

40. What letter indicates the lung in the figure? 1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D

41. In what part of the brain are the centers that provide protective reactions of coughing and sneezing? 1) anterior 2) oblong 3) intermediate 4) middle

42. Diffusion of gases in the human body occurs in 1) alveolus 2) nasal mucosa 3) bronchial wall 4) tracheal wall

43. Human lung breathing. Normally, inhaled air passes through the nasal cavity. There, the air is warmed by those located in the walls of the nasal passages (A), which carry blood. Also in the nasal cavity are located (B), which trap large dust particles. Then the air through the nasopharynx enters (B), from where it enters the trachea. The ciliated epithelium of the trachea contains constantly oscillating (G), which expel dust particles from the lungs that are not filtered in the nasal cavity. From the trachea, air enters (D) through the bronchi, where gas exchange occurs. 1) villus 2) hair 3) capillary 4) arteriole 5) pharynx 6) larynx 7) alveolus 8) lung sac

44. Establish the order of passage of air through the respiratory system of a chewing person when inhaling. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in your answer. 1) larynx 2) trachea 3) alveoli of the lungs 4) nasal cavity 5) nasopharynx 6) bronchi

45. What happens to the air in the human nasal cavity? Choose three correct answers from six and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. 1) oxidizes organic substances 2) enters into combination with hemoglobin 3) is filtered 4) warms or cools 5) moisturizes 6) penetrates into the capillaries of the mucous membrane

46. ​​What is the vital capacity of the lungs (VC) and what does it consist of?

Breathing The process of gas exchange between the body and the environment is called. Human life is closely related to the reactions of biological oxidation and is accompanied by the absorption of oxygen. To maintain oxidative processes, a continuous supply of oxygen is necessary, which is carried by the blood to all organs, tissues and cells, where most of it binds to the end products of cleavage, and the body is released from carbon dioxide. The essence of the process of respiration is the consumption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide. (N.E. Kovalev, L.D. Shevchuk, O.I. Shchurenko. Biology for preparatory departments of medical institutes.)

Functions of the respiratory system.

Oxygen is found in the air around us.
It can penetrate the skin, but only in small amounts, completely insufficient to sustain life. There is a legend about Italian children who were painted with gold paint to participate in a religious procession; the story goes on to say that they all died of asphyxiation because "the skin couldn't breathe". On the basis of scientific data, death by asphyxiation is completely excluded here, since the absorption of oxygen through the skin is barely measurable, and the release of carbon dioxide is less than 1% of its release through the lungs. The supply of oxygen to the body and the removal of carbon dioxide respiratory system. The transport of gases and other substances necessary for the body is carried out with the help of circulatory system. The function of the respiratory system is only to supply the blood with a sufficient amount of oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from it. The chemical reduction of molecular oxygen with the formation of water is the main source of energy for mammals. Without it, life cannot last more than a few seconds. The reduction of oxygen is accompanied by the formation of CO 2 . The oxygen included in CO 2 does not come directly from molecular oxygen. The use of O 2 and the formation of CO 2 are interconnected by intermediate metabolic reactions; theoretically, each of them last some time. The exchange of O 2 and CO 2 between the body and the environment is called respiration. In higher animals, the process of respiration is carried out through a series of successive processes. 1. The exchange of gases between the environment and the lungs, which is usually referred to as "pulmonary ventilation". 2. Exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and blood ( pulmonary respiration). 3. Exchange of gases between blood and tissues. Finally, gases pass within the tissue to the places of consumption (for O 2) and from the places of formation (for CO 2) (cellular respiration). The loss of any of these four processes leads to respiratory disorders and creates a danger to human life.

Anatomy.

The human respiratory system consists of tissues and organs that provide pulmonary ventilation and pulmonary respiration. The airways include: nose, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs consist of bronchioles and alveolar sacs, as well as arteries, capillaries and veins of the pulmonary circulation. The elements of the musculoskeletal system associated with breathing include the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, and accessory muscles of respiration.

Airways.

The nose and nasal cavity serve as conductive channels for air, in which it is heated, humidified and filtered. Olfactory receptors are also enclosed in the nasal cavity.
The outer part of the nose is formed by a triangular bone-cartilaginous skeleton, which is covered with skin; two oval openings on the lower surface - the nostrils - each open into the wedge-shaped nasal cavity. These cavities are separated by a septum. Three light spongy curls (shells) protrude from the side walls of the nostrils, partially dividing the cavities into four open passages (nasal passages). The nasal cavity is lined with a richly vascularized mucosa. Numerous stiff hairs, as well as ciliated epithelial and goblet cells, serve to clean the inhaled air from particulate matter. Olfactory cells lie in the upper part of the cavity.

The larynx lies between the trachea and the root of the tongue. The laryngeal cavity is divided by two mucosal folds that do not fully converge along the midline. The space between these folds - the glottis is protected by a plate of fibrous cartilage - the epiglottis. Along the edges of the glottis in the mucous membrane are fibrous elastic ligaments, which are called the lower, or true, vocal folds (ligaments). Above them are false vocal folds, which protect the true vocal folds and keep them moist; they also help to hold the breath, and when swallowing, they prevent food from entering the larynx. Specialized muscles stretch and relax the true and false vocal folds. These muscles play an important role in phonation and also prevent any particles from entering the respiratory tract.

The trachea begins at the lower end of the larynx and descends into the chest cavity, where it divides into the right and left bronchi; its wall is formed by connective tissue and cartilage. In most mammals, cartilage forms incomplete rings. The parts adjacent to the esophagus are replaced by a fibrous ligament. The right bronchus is usually shorter and wider than the left. Upon entering the lungs, the main bronchi gradually divide into ever smaller tubes (bronchioles), the smallest of which, the terminal bronchioles, are the last element of the airways. From the larynx to the terminal bronchioles, the tubes are lined with ciliated epithelium.

Lungs

In general, the lungs have the appearance of spongy, sweaty cone-shaped formations lying on both halves of the chest cavity. The smallest structural element of the lung - the lobule consists of the final bronchiole leading to the pulmonary bronchiole and the alveolar sac. The walls of the pulmonary bronchioles and the alveolar sac form depressions called alveoli. This structure of the lungs increases their respiratory surface, which is 50-100 times the surface of the body. The relative size of the surface through which gas exchange occurs in the lungs is greater in animals with high activity and mobility. The walls of the alveoli consist of one layer epithelial cells and surrounded by pulmonary capillaries. The inner surface of the alveolus is coated with a surfactant. The surfactant is believed to be a secretion product of granule cells. A separate alveolus, in close contact with neighboring structures, has the shape of an irregular polyhedron and approximate dimensions up to 250 microns. It is generally accepted that the total surface of the alveoli through which gas exchange takes place depends exponentially on body weight. With age, there is a decrease in the surface area of ​​the alveoli.

Pleura

Each lung is surrounded by a sac called the pleura. The outer (parietal) pleura adjoins the inner surface of the chest wall and the diaphragm, the inner (visceral) covers the lung. The gap between the sheets is called the pleural cavity. When the chest moves, the inner sheet usually slides easily over the outer one. The pressure in the pleural cavity is always less than atmospheric (negative). At rest, intrapleural pressure in humans is on average 4.5 Torr lower than atmospheric pressure (-4.5 Torr). The interpleural space between the lungs is called the mediastinum; it contains the trachea, thymus gland and heart with large vessels, The lymph nodes and esophagus.

Blood vessels of the lungs

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle of the heart, it divides into right and left branches that go to the lungs. These arteries branch, following the bronchi, supplying large lung structures and form capillaries that wrap around the walls of the alveoli.

The air in the alveolus is separated from the blood in the capillary by the alveolar wall, the capillary wall, and in some cases an intermediate layer in between. From the capillaries, blood flows into small veins, which eventually join and form the pulmonary veins, which deliver blood to the left atrium.
bronchial arteries great circle also bring blood to the lungs, namely, they supply the bronchi and bronchioles, lymph nodes, the walls of blood vessels and the pleura. Most of this blood flows into bronchial veins, and from there - into the unpaired (right) and semi-unpaired (left). Very not a large number of arterial bronchial blood enters the pulmonary veins.

respiratory muscles

The respiratory muscles are those muscles whose contractions change the volume of the chest. Muscles from the head, neck, arms, and some of the upper thoracic and lower cervical vertebrae, as well as the external intercostal muscles connecting rib to rib, raise the ribs and increase the volume of the chest. The diaphragm is a muscular-tendon plate attached to the vertebrae, ribs, and sternum that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. This is the main muscle involved in normal inspiration. With increased inhalation, additional muscle groups are reduced. With increased exhalation, the muscles attached between the ribs (internal intercostal muscles), to the ribs and lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae, as well as the muscles of the abdominal cavity, act; they lower their ribs and press abdominal organs to the relaxed diaphragm, thus reducing the capacity of the chest.

Pulmonary ventilation

As long as intrapleural pressure remains below atmospheric pressure, the dimensions of the lungs closely follow those of the chest cavity. The movements of the lungs are made as a result of the contraction of the respiratory muscles in combination with the movement of parts of the chest wall and diaphragm.

Breathing movements

Relaxation of all the muscles associated with breathing puts the chest in a position of passive exhalation. Appropriate muscle activity can translate this position into inhalation or increase exhalation.
Inspiration is created by expansion of the chest cavity and is always an active process. Due to their articulation with the vertebrae, the ribs move up and out, increasing the distance from the spine to the sternum, as well as the lateral dimensions of the chest cavity (costal or thoracic type of breathing). Contraction of the diaphragm changes its shape from dome-shaped to flatter, which increases the size of the chest cavity in the longitudinal direction (diaphragmatic or abdominal type of breathing). Diaphragmatic breathing usually plays the main role in inhalation. Since people are bipedal creatures, with each movement of the ribs and sternum, the center of gravity of the body changes and it becomes necessary to adapt different muscles to this.
During quiet breathing, a person usually has enough elastic properties and the weight of the moved tissues to return them to the position preceding inspiration. Thus, exhalation at rest occurs passively due to a gradual decrease in the activity of the muscles that create the condition for inspiration. Active expiration may result from contraction of the internal intercostal muscles in addition to other muscle groups that lower the ribs, reduce the transverse dimensions of the chest cavity and the distance between the sternum and spine. Active expiration can also occur due to contraction of the abdominal muscles, which presses the viscera against the relaxed diaphragm and reduces the longitudinal size of the chest cavity.
The expansion of the lung reduces (temporarily) the total intrapulmonary (alveolar) pressure. It is equal to atmospheric when the air is not moving, and the glottis is open. It is below atmospheric pressure until the lungs are full when inhaling, and above atmospheric pressure when exhaling. Intrapleural pressure also changes during the respiratory movement; but it is always below atmospheric (i.e., always negative).

Changes in lung volume

In humans, the lungs occupy about 6% of the volume of the body, regardless of its weight. The volume of the lung does not change in the same way during inspiration. There are three main reasons for this, firstly, the chest cavity increases unevenly in all directions, and secondly, not all parts of the lung are equally extensible. Thirdly, the existence of a gravitational effect is assumed, which contributes to the downward displacement of the lung.
The volume of air inhaled during a normal (non-enhanced) inhalation and exhaled during a normal (non-enhanced) exhalation is called respiratory air. The volume of maximum exhalation after the previous maximum inhalation is called vital capacity. It is not equal to the total volume of air in the lung (total lung volume) because the lungs do not fully collapse. The volume of air that remains in the lung that has collapsed is called residual air. There is additional volume that can be inhaled at maximum effort after a normal inhalation. And the air that is exhaled with maximum effort after a normal exhalation is the expiratory reserve volume. Functional residual capacity consists of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume. This is the air in the lungs in which normal breathing air is diluted. As a result, the composition of the gas in the lungs after one respiratory movement usually does not change dramatically.
Minute volume V is the air inhaled in one minute. It can be calculated by multiplying the mean tidal volume (V t) by the number of breaths per minute (f), or V=fV t . Part V t, for example, air in the trachea and bronchi to the terminal bronchioles and in some alveoli, does not participate in gas exchange, since it does not come into contact with active pulmonary blood flow - this is the so-called "dead" space (V d). The part of V t that is involved in gas exchange with pulmonary blood is called the alveolar volume (VA). From a physiological point of view, alveolar ventilation (V A) is the most essential part of external respiration V A \u003d f (V t -V d), since it is the volume of air inhaled per minute that exchanges gases with the blood of the pulmonary capillaries.

Pulmonary respiration

A gas is a state of matter in which it is evenly distributed over a limited volume. In the gas phase, the interaction of molecules with each other is insignificant. When they collide with the walls of an enclosed space, their movement creates a certain force; this force applied per unit area is called gas pressure and is expressed in millimeters of mercury.

Hygiene advice in relation to the respiratory organs, they include warming the air, cleansing it of dust and pathogens. This contributes nasal breathing. There are many folds on the surface of the mucous membrane of the nose and nasopharynx, which ensure its warming during the passage of air, which protects a person from colds during the cold season. Thanks to nasal breathing, dry air is moistened, settled dust is removed by the ciliated epithelium, and it is protected from damage. tooth enamel, which would occur when cold air is inhaled through the mouth. Through the respiratory organs, pathogens of influenza, tuberculosis, diphtheria, tonsillitis, etc. can enter the body together with air. Most of them, like dust particles, adhere to the mucous membrane of the airways and are removed from them by the ciliary epithelium, and microbes are neutralized by mucus. But some microorganisms settle in the respiratory tract and can cause various diseases.
Proper breathing is possible with the normal development of the chest, which is achieved by systematic exercise outdoors, correct posture while sitting at the table, straight posture when walking and standing. In poorly ventilated rooms, the air contains from 0.07 to 0.1% CO 2 , which is very harmful.
Smoking causes great harm to health. It causes permanent poisoning of the body and irritation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. The fact that smokers have lung cancer much more often than non-smokers also speaks about the dangers of smoking. Tobacco smoke is harmful not only to smokers themselves, but also to those who remain in the atmosphere of tobacco smoke - in a residential area or at work.
The fight against air pollution in cities includes a system of purification plants at industrial enterprises and extensive landscaping. Plants, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere and evaporating water in large quantities, refresh and cool the air. The leaves of the trees trap dust, so that the air becomes cleaner and more transparent. Importance for health, they have proper breathing and systematic hardening of the body, for which it is necessary to often be in the fresh air, take walks, preferably outside the city, in the forest.

human respiratory system- a set of organs and tissues that provide in the human body the exchange of gases between the blood and the environment.

Function of the respiratory system:

• intake of oxygen into the body;
• excretion of carbon dioxide from the body;
• excretion of gaseous products of metabolism from the body;
• thermoregulation;
• synthetic: in the tissues of the lungs some biologically synthesized active substances: heparin, lipids, etc.;
• hematopoietic: mature in the lungs mast cells and basophils;
• deposition: the capillaries of the lungs can accumulate a large amount of blood;
• absorption: ether, chloroform, nicotine and many other substances are easily absorbed from the surface of the lungs.

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and airways.

Pulmonary contractions are carried out with the help of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.

Respiratory tract: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.

The lungs are made up of pulmonary vesicles alveoli.

Rice. Respiratory system

Airways

nasal cavity

The nasal and pharyngeal cavities are the upper respiratory tract. The nose is formed by a system of cartilage, thanks to which the nasal passages are always open. At the very beginning of the nasal passages there are small hairs that trap large dust particles of inhaled air.

The nasal cavity is lined from the inside with a mucous membrane penetrated by blood vessels. It contains a large number of mucous glands (150 glands/ Withm2 cm2 mucous membrane). Mucus prevents the growth of microbes. A large number of leukocytes-phagocytes that destroy the microbial flora come out of the blood capillaries to the surface of the mucous membrane.

In addition, the mucous membrane can vary significantly in its volume. When the walls of its vessels contract, it contracts, the nasal passages expand, and the person breathes easily and freely.

The mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract is formed by ciliated epithelium. The movement of the cilia of a single cell and the entire epithelial layer is strictly coordinated: each previous cilium in the phases of its movement is ahead of the next by a certain period of time, therefore the surface of the epithelium is undulatingly mobile - “flickers”. The movement of the cilia helps keep the airways clear by removing harmful substances.

Rice. 1. Ciliated epithelium of the respiratory system

The olfactory organs are located in the upper part of the nasal cavity.

Function of the nasal passages:

• filtration of microorganisms;
• dust filtration;
• humidification and warming of the inhaled air;
• mucus washes away everything filtered into the gastrointestinal tract.

The cavity is divided by the ethmoid bone into two halves. Bone plates divide both halves into narrow, interconnected passages.

Open into the nasal cavity sinuses air bones: maxillary, frontal, etc. These sinuses are called paranasal sinuses nose. They are lined with a thin mucous membrane containing a small amount of mucous glands. All these partitions and shells, as well as numerous adnexal cavities of the cranial bones, sharply increase the volume and surface of the walls of the nasal cavity.

SINSINS OF THE NOSE

The lower part of the pharynx passes into two tubes: the respiratory (in front) and the esophagus (behind). Thus, the pharynx is a common department for the digestive and respiratory systems.

LARYNX

The upper part of the respiratory tube is the larynx, located in front of the neck. Most of the larynx is also lined with a mucous membrane of ciliated (ciliary) epithelium.

The larynx consists of movably interconnected cartilages: cricoid, thyroid (forms Adam's apple, or Adam's apple) and two arytenoid cartilages.

Epiglottis covers the entrance to the larynx at the time of swallowing food. The front end of the epiglottis is connected to the thyroid cartilage.

Rice. Larynx

The cartilages of the larynx are interconnected by joints, and the spaces between the cartilages are covered with connective tissue membranes.

VOICE PRODUCTION

The thyroid gland is attached to the outside of the larynx.

Anteriorly, the larynx is protected by the anterior muscles of the neck.

TRACHEA AND BRONCH

The trachea is a breathing tube about 12 cm long.

It is made up of 16-20 cartilaginous semirings that do not close behind; half rings prevent the trachea from collapsing during exhalation.

The back of the trachea and the spaces between the cartilaginous half-rings are covered with a connective tissue membrane. Behind the trachea lies the esophagus, the wall of which, during the passage of the food bolus, protrudes slightly into its lumen.

Rice. Cross section of the trachea: 1 - ciliated epithelium; 2 - own layer of the mucous membrane; 3 - cartilaginous half ring; 4 - connective tissue membrane

At the level of IV-V thoracic vertebrae, the trachea is divided into two large primary bronchus, going to the right and left lungs. This place of division is called a bifurcation (branching).

The aortic arch bends through the left bronchus, and the right bronchus bends around the unpaired vein going from behind to the front. In the words of old anatomists, "the aortic arch sits astride the left bronchus, and the unpaired vein sits on the right."

Cartilaginous rings located in the walls of the trachea and bronchi make these tubes elastic and non-collapsing, so that air passes through them easily and unhindered. The inner surface of the entire respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi and parts of the bronchioles) is covered with a mucous membrane of multi-row ciliated epithelium.

The device of the respiratory tract provides warming, moistening and purification of the air coming with inhalation. Dust particles move upward with ciliated epithelium and are removed outside with coughing and sneezing. Microbes are rendered harmless by mucosal lymphocytes.

lungs

The lungs (right and left) are located in the chest cavity under the protection of the chest.

PLEURA

Lungs covered pleura.

Pleura- a thin, smooth and moist serous membrane rich in elastic fibers that covers each of the lungs.

Distinguish lung pleura, tightly fused with lung tissue, and parietal pleura, lining the inside of the chest wall.

At the roots of the lungs, the pulmonary pleura passes into the parietal pleura. Thus, a hermetically closed pleural cavity is formed around each lung, representing a narrow gap between the pulmonary and parietal pleura. The pleural cavity is filled with a small amount of serous fluid, which acts as a lubricant that facilitates the respiratory movements of the lungs.

Rice. Pleura

MEDIASTINUM

The mediastinum is the space between the right and left pleural sacs. It is bounded in front by the sternum with costal cartilages, and in the back by the spine.

In the mediastinum are the heart with large vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland, nerves of the diaphragm and thoracic lymphatic duct.

BRONCHIAL TREE

The right lung is divided by deep furrows into three lobes, and the left into two. The left lung, on the side facing the midline, has a recess with which it is adjacent to the heart.

Into each lung inside includes thick bundles consisting of the primary bronchus, pulmonary artery and nerves, and two pulmonary veins come out and lymphatic vessels. All these bronchial-vascular bundles, taken together, form lung root. A large number of bronchial lymph nodes are located around the pulmonary roots.

Entering the lungs, the left bronchus is divided into two, and the right - into three branches according to the number of pulmonary lobes. In the lungs, the bronchi form the so-called bronchial tree. With each new "branch", the diameter of the bronchi decreases until they become completely microscopic bronchioles with a diameter of 0.5 mm. In the soft walls of the bronchioles there are smooth muscle fibers and no cartilaginous semirings. There are up to 25 million such bronchioles.

Rice. bronchial tree

Bronchioles pass into branched alveolar passages, which end in lung sacs, the walls of which are strewn with swellings - pulmonary alveoli. The walls of the alveoli are permeated with a network of capillaries: gas exchange occurs in them.

The alveolar ducts and alveoli are entwined with many elastic connective tissue and elastic fibers, which also form the basis of the smallest bronchi and bronchioles, due to which the lung tissue easily stretches during inhalation and collapses again during exhalation.

ALVEOLAS

Alveoli are formed by a network of the finest elastic fibers. The inner surface of the alveoli is lined with a single layer of squamous epithelium. The walls of the epithelium produce surfactant- a surfactant that lines the inside of the alveoli and prevents them from collapsing.

Under the epithelium of the pulmonary vesicles lies a dense network of capillaries, into which the terminal branches of the pulmonary artery break. Through the adjoining walls of the alveoli and capillaries, gas exchange occurs during respiration. Once in the blood, oxygen binds to hemoglobin and spreads throughout the body, supplying cells and tissues.

Rice. Alveoli

Rice. Gas exchange in the alveoli

Before birth, the fetus does not breathe through the lungs and the pulmonary vesicles are in a collapsed state; after birth, with the first breath, the alveoli swell and remain straightened for life, retaining a certain amount of air even with the deepest exhalation.

GAS EXCHANGE AREA

respiratory physiology

All life processes proceed with the obligatory participation of oxygen, that is, they are aerobic. Particularly sensitive to oxygen deficiency is the central nervous system, and primarily cortical neurons, which die earlier than others in oxygen-free conditions. As is known, the period clinical death should not exceed five minutes. Otherwise, irreversible processes develop in the neurons of the cerebral cortex.

Breath- the physiological process of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.

The whole breathing process can be divided into three main stages:

• pulmonary (external) breathing: gas exchange in the capillaries of the pulmonary vesicles;
• transport of gases by blood;
• cellular (tissue) respiration: gas exchange in cells (enzymatic oxidation of nutrients in mitochondria).

Rice. Lung and tissue respiration

Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a complex iron-containing protein. This protein is able to attach oxygen and carbon dioxide to itself.

Passing through the capillaries of the lungs, hemoglobin attaches 4 oxygen atoms to itself, turning into oxyhemoglobin. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body. In the tissues, oxygen is released (oxyhemoglobin is converted to hemoglobin) and carbon dioxide is added (hemoglobin is converted to carbohemoglobin). The red blood cells then transport carbon dioxide to the lungs for removal from the body.

Rice. Transport function of hemoglobin

The hemoglobin molecule forms a stable compound with carbon monoxide II ( carbon monoxide). Carbon monoxide poisoning leads to the death of the body due to oxygen deficiency.

MECHANISM OF INHALE AND EXHAUST

inhale- is an active act, as it is carried out with the help of specialized respiratory muscles.

The respiratory muscles are intercostal muscles and diaphragm. Deep inhalation uses the muscles of the neck, chest and abs.

The lungs themselves do not have muscles. They are unable to expand and contract on their own. The lungs only follow the ribcage, which expands thanks to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

The diaphragm during inspiration drops by 3-4 cm, as a result of which the volume of the chest increases by 1000-1200 ml. In addition, the diaphragm pushes the lower ribs to the periphery, which also leads to an increase in chest capacity. Moreover, the stronger the contraction of the diaphragm, the more the volume of the chest cavity increases.

The intercostal muscles, contracting, raise the ribs, which also causes an increase in the volume of the chest.

The lungs, following the stretching of the chest, stretch themselves, and the pressure in them drops. As a result, a difference is created between the pressure of atmospheric air and the pressure in the lungs, air rushes into them - inspiration occurs.

Exhalation, unlike inhalation, it is a passive act, since muscles do not take part in its implementation. When the intercostal muscles relax, the ribs descend under the action of gravity; the diaphragm, relaxing, rises, taking its usual position, and the volume of the chest cavity decreases - the lungs contract. There is an exhalation.

The lungs are located in a hermetically sealed cavity formed by the pulmonary and parietal pleura. In the pleural cavity, the pressure is below atmospheric (“negative”). Due to the negative pressure, the pulmonary pleura is tightly pressed against the parietal pleura.

The decrease in pressure in the pleural space is the main reason for the increase in lung volume during inspiration, that is, it is the force that stretches the lungs. So, during an increase in the volume of the chest, the pressure in the interpleural formation decreases, and due to the pressure difference, air actively enters the lungs and increases their volume.

During expiration, the pressure in the pleural cavity increases, and due to the difference in pressure, the air escapes, the lungs collapse.

chest breathing carried out mainly due to the external intercostal muscles.

abdominal breathing carried out by the diaphragm.

In men, the abdominal type of breathing is noted, and in women - chest. However, regardless of this, both men and women breathe rhythmically. From the first hour of life, the rhythm of breathing is not disturbed, only its frequency changes.

A newborn child breathes 60 times per minute, in an adult, the frequency of respiratory movements at rest is about 16-18. However, during physical activity, emotional arousal or with an increase in body temperature, the respiratory rate can increase significantly.

vital lung capacity

Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air that can enter and exit the lungs during maximum inhalation and exhalation.

The vital capacity of the lungs is determined by the device spirometer.

In an adult healthy person VC varies from 3500 to 7000 ml and depends on gender and on indicators of physical development: for example, chest volume.

ZhEL consists of several volumes:

1. Tidal volume (TO)- this is the amount of air that enters and exits the lungs during quiet breathing (500-600 ml).
2. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)) is the maximum amount of air that can enter the lungs after a quiet breath (1500 - 2500 ml).
3. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- this is the maximum amount of air that can be removed from the lungs after a quiet exhalation (1000 - 1500 ml).

breathing regulation

Respiration is regulated by nervous and humoral mechanisms, which are reduced to ensuring the rhythmic activity of the respiratory system (inhalation, exhalation) and adaptive respiratory reflexes, that is, a change in the frequency and depth of respiratory movements that occur under changing environmental conditions or the internal environment of the body.

The leading respiratory center, as established by N. A. Mislavsky in 1885, is the respiratory center located in the region medulla oblongata.

Respiratory centers are found in the hypothalamus. They take part in the organization of more complex adaptive respiratory reflexes, which are necessary when the conditions of the organism's existence change. In addition, the respiratory centers are also located in the cerebral cortex, carrying out the highest forms of adaptive processes. The presence of respiratory centers in the cerebral cortex is proved by the formation of conditioned respiratory reflexes, changes in the frequency and depth of respiratory movements that occur during various emotional states, as well as voluntary changes in breathing.

Vegetative nervous system innervates the walls of the bronchi. Their smooth muscles are supplied with centrifugal fibers of the vagus and sympathetic nerves. The vagus nerves cause contraction of the bronchial muscles and constriction of the bronchi, while the sympathetic nerves relax the bronchial muscles and dilate the bronchi.

Humoral regulation: in breathing is carried out reflexively in response to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.

A1. Gas exchange between blood and atmospheric air

happening in

1) alveoli of the lungs

2) bronchioles

3) fabrics

4) pleural cavity

A2. Breathing is a process

1) obtaining energy from organic compounds with the participation of oxygen

2) energy absorption during the synthesis of organic compounds

3) the formation of oxygen during chemical reactions

4) simultaneous synthesis and decomposition of organic compounds.

A3. The respiratory organ is not:

1) larynx

2) trachea

3) oral cavity

4) bronchi

A4. One of the functions of the nasal cavity is:

1) retention of microorganisms

2) enrichment of blood with oxygen

3) air cooling

4) dehumidification

A5. The larynx protects against food entering it:

1) arytenoid cartilage

3) epiglottis

4) thyroid cartilage

A6. The respiratory surface of the lungs is increased

1) bronchi

2) bronchioles

3) eyelashes

4) alveoli

A7. Oxygen enters the alveoli and from them into the blood

1) diffusion from an area with a lower gas concentration to an area with a higher concentration

2) diffusion from an area with a higher gas concentration to an area with a lower concentration

3) diffusion from body tissues

4) under the influence of nervous regulation

A8. A wound that violates the tightness of the pleural cavity will lead to

1) inhibition of the respiratory center

2) restriction of lung movement

3) excess oxygen in the blood

4) excessive mobility of the lungs

A9. The cause of tissue gas exchange is

1) the difference in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood and tissues

2) the difference in the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues

3) different rates of transition of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules from one medium to another

4) air pressure difference in the lungs and pleural cavity

IN 1. Select the processes that occur during gas exchange in the lungs

1) diffusion of oxygen from blood to tissues

2) formation of carboxyhemoglobin

3) the formation of oxyhemoglobin

4) diffusion of carbon dioxide from cells into the blood

5) diffusion of atmospheric oxygen into the blood

6) diffusion of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

IN 2. Establish the correct sequence of passage of atmospheric air through the respiratory tract

A) larynx

B) bronchi

D) bronchioles

B) nasopharynx

D) lungs

The set of organs that provide the function external breathing: gas exchange between inhaled atmospheric air and circulating blood.

Breath- a set of processes that provide the body's need for oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide. The supply of oxygen from the atmosphere to the cells is necessary for oxidation substances that release energy needed by the body. Without breathing, a person can live up to 5-7 minutes followed by loss of consciousness, irreversible changes in the brain and death.

Stages of breathing

1) external breathing - delivery of air to the lungs

2) gas exchange in the lungs between alveolar air and capillary blood

3) transport of gases by blood

4) gas exchange in tissues between the blood of the capillaries of the BCC and the cells of the tissues

5) tissue respiration - biooxidation in the mitochondria of cells

Breathing functions

Providing the body with oxygen and its participation in OVR

Removal of part of the gaseous products of metabolism: CO 2, H 2 O, NH 3, H 2 S and others

Oxidation of organics with energy release

Breathing rate

An adult at rest has an average of 14 respiratory movements per minute, but it can undergo significant fluctuations of 10-18.

In children 20-30; in infants 30-40; in newborns 40-60

Tidal volume 400-500ml - volume of air during inhalation/exhalation at rest.

After a calm breath, you can inhale additionally inspiratory reserve volume 1500 ml.

After a calm exhalation, you can exhale additionally reserve volume 1500 ml.

Vital capacity of the lungs 3500ml - maximum inhalation after maximum exhalation. The sum of tidal volume and inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes.

Functional residual capacity 3000ml - remains after a quiet exhalation.

Residual volume 1500ml remains in the lungs after maximum exhalation.

Alveolar air constantly fills the alveoli of the lungs during quiet breathing. The sum of the residual and reserve volumes. Equal to 2500 ml, it participates in gas exchange

Classification of types of breathing according to the method of expansion of the chest:

- chest : expansion of the chest by raising the ribs, more often in women.

- abdominal : expansion of the chest by flattening the diaphragm, more often in men.

Types of airways:

System top Key words: nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, partially oral cavity.

System lower : larynx, trachea, bronchial tree.

Symbolic transition upper respiratory tract to the lower is carried out at the intersection of the digestive and respiratory systems in upper part of the larynx .

upper respiratory tract

nasal cavity divided by a septum (cartilage, bipod) into 2 halves and behind, at the expense of choan goes into nasopharynx . Accessory cavities of the nose are sinuses - frontal, wedge-shaped and maxillary (Gaimorova). The inner surface of the nasal cavity is lined mucous membrane , the upper layer of which is formed ciliary epithelium .

Mucus has bactericidal properties: it, with microorganisms and dust settled on it, is removed from the body using the movement of cilia, cleansing and humidifying the incoming air. Thanks to blood vessels the air warms up.

Upper turbinate forms olfactory cavity , on the walls of the mucous membrane of which there are special nerve olfactory cells. There are endings olfactory nerve .

Opens into the nasal cavity nasolacrimal duct that removes excess tear fluid.

Pharynx- a muscular tube covered with a mucous membrane, 12-15 cm. Connecting link between the respiratory and digestive systems: communicates the cavity nose and mouth , and esophagus With larynx Yu . Adjacent to the lateral walls of the pharynx carotid arteries and jugular veins. At the entrance to the pharynx, lymphoid tissue accumulates, forming tonsils . 3 parts:

Upper nasopharynx communicates with the nasal cavity through the choanae.

Medium oropharynx communicates with the oral cavity through the pharynx.

Lower laryngopharynx communicates with the larynx.

lower respiratory tract

Larynx contains voice box and connects the pharynx with the trachea. located at the level 4-6 cervical vertebrae and connects with ligaments to hyoid bone . When swallowing, the entrance to the larynx closes the cartilage epiglottis .

Trachea windpipe, continuation of the larynx. Looks like a tube 11-13cm , which consists of 16-20 cartilaginous semirings , the back of which is smooth muscle the cloth. They are interconnected by fibrous ligaments formed by dense fibrous connective tissue.

mucous membrane larynx and trachea lined ciliated epithelium rich in lymphoid tissue and mucous glands.

Bronchi- branches of the windpipe. The lower end of the trachea at the level 5 thoracic vertebrae divided by 2 main bronchi that go to gate the corresponding lung. The right bronchus is wider and shorter (8 rings), while the left one is narrower and longer (12 rings). Depart from them

- equity bronchi of the 1st order according to the number of lobes of the lung: 3 in the right and 2 in the left.

- zonal bronchi of the 2nd order

- segmental bronchi of its 3rd order

They branch many times, forming bronchial tree . As the diameter of the bronchus decreases, the cartilaginous rings are replaced by plates, and disappear into bronchioles .

Large inhaled foreign bodies removed with cough ; and dust particles or microorganisms - due to fluctuations of cilia epithelial cells that promote bronchial secretion towards the trachea.

Lungs

Paired cone-shaped elastic spongy organs, occupying almost the entire volume chest cavity . On the inner surface is gates , where the bronchus, nerves, lymphatic vessels, pulmonary veins and arteries pass, together forming lung root.

The lung is divided into grooves shares : right for three, left for two. The shares are divided into bronchopulmonary segments formed by the lungs slices separated from each other by connective tissue layers. One lobule is formed by 12-18 acini. acinus - structural and functional unit of the lung, a branching system of one terminal bronchiole, ending in alveoli.

Alveolus - the end part of the respiratory apparatus in the form of a thin-walled bubble. They are densely woven capillary network so that each capillary is in contact with several alveoli. The inner surface is represented flat single layer epithelium and permeated with elastic fibers. Cells secrete lubricant into the alveolar cavity phospholipid nature - surfactant , which prevents adhesion of the walls and has bactericidal properties. There are alveolar macrophages .

Outside, the lungs are covered pleura consisting of 2 sheets:

Interior visceral fuses with lung tissue, going into the furrows

Outer parietal fuses with the walls of the chest cavity. It is divided into three parts: costal, diaphragmatic and mediastinal.

Between them is a closed pleural cavity with a small amount serous fluid . It reduces friction between the pleura during inhalation and exhalation and creates a negative subatmospheric pressure , so the lungs are always stretched and do not collapse.

Acts of inhalation and exhalation

Lung tissue does not contain muscle tissue, so the change in the volume of HA is achieved using the work of skeletal muscles. Diaphragm descends, expanding the chest; external intercostal contract, raising the ribs. Thanks to elasticity lungs and a closed interpleural cavity with subatmospheric pressure, lungs passively stretch , the air pressure in the alveoli decreases, which leads to the suction of atmospheric air. Inhale is active process , because always requires the participation of muscles.

Calm exhalation is passive: when the external intercostal and diaphragm are relaxed, the GC falls under gravity and exhalation occurs. Forced exhalation requires the participation of the internal intercostal and abdominal wall muscles.

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Biology [A complete guide to preparing for the exam] Lerner Georgy Isaakovich

5.1.3 Structure and functions of the respiratory system

The main terms and concepts tested in the examination paper: alveoli, lungs, alveolar air, inhalation, exhalation, diaphragm, gas exchange in the lungs and tissues, diffusion, respiration, respiratory movements, respiratory center, pleural cavity, regulation of respiration.

Respiratory system performs the function of gas exchange, delivering oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide from it. The airways are the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. In the upper respiratory tract, the air is warmed, cleaned of various particles and humidified. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs. In the nasal cavity, which is lined with mucous membrane and covered with ciliary epithelium, mucus is secreted. It moisturizes the inhaled air, envelops solid particles. The mucous membrane warms the air, because. it is richly supplied with blood vessels. Air through the nasal passages enters the nasopharynx and then into the larynx.

Larynx performs two functions - respiratory and voice formation. The complexity of its structure is associated with the formation of voice. In the larynx are vocal cords, consisting of elastic fibers of connective tissue. Sound is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords. The larynx takes part only in the formation of sound. Lips, tongue, soft palate, paranasal sinuses take part in articulate speech. The larynx changes with age. Its growth and function are associated with the development of the gonads. The size of the larynx in boys during puberty increases. The voice changes (mutates). Air enters from the larynx into trachea.

Trachea - a tube, 10-11 cm long, consisting of 16-20 cartilaginous rings, not closed behind. The rings are connected by ligaments. The posterior wall of the trachea is formed by dense fibrous connective tissue. The food bolus passing through the esophagus, adjacent to the posterior wall of the trachea, does not experience resistance from it.

The trachea divides into two elastic main bronchus. The main bronchi branch into smaller bronchi called bronchioles. The bronchi and brochioles are lined with ciliated epithelium. The bronchioles lead to the lungs.

Lungs - paired organs located in the chest cavity. The lungs are made up of pulmonary sacs called alveoli. The wall of the alveolus is formed by a single-layer epithelium and is braided with a network of capillaries into which atmospheric air enters. Between the outer layer of the lung and the chest pleural cavity, filled with a small amount of fluid that reduces friction when moving the lungs. It is formed by two sheets of pleura, one of which covers the lung, and the other lines the chest from the inside. The pressure in the pleural cavity is less than atmospheric and is about 751 mm Hg. Art. When inhaling The chest cavity expands, the diaphragm descends, and the lungs expand. When exhaling the volume of the chest cavity decreases, the diaphragm relaxes and rises. The respiratory movements involve the external intercostal muscles, the muscles of the diaphragm, and the internal intercostal muscles. With increased breathing, all the muscles of the chest are involved, lifting the ribs and sternum, the muscles of the abdominal wall.

Breathing movements controlled by the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata. The center has departments of inhalation and exhalation. From the center of inhalation, impulses are sent to the respiratory muscles. There is a breath. Impulses from the respiratory muscles travel to the respiratory center vagus nerve and inhibit the inspiratory center. There is an exhalation. The activity of the respiratory center is affected by the level blood pressure, temperature, pain and other stimuli. Humoral regulation occurs when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood changes. Its increase excites the respiratory center and causes quickening and deepening of breathing. The ability to arbitrarily hold your breath for a while is explained by the controlling influence on the breathing process of the cerebral cortex.

Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues occurs by diffusion of gases from one medium to another. The pressure of oxygen in atmospheric air is higher than in the alveolar air, and it diffuses into the alveoli. From the alveoli, for the same reasons, oxygen penetrates into the venous blood, saturating it, and from the blood into the tissues.

The pressure of carbon dioxide in the tissues is higher than in the blood, and in the alveolar air is higher than in the atmospheric air. Therefore, it diffuses from the tissues into the blood, then into the alveoli and into the atmosphere.

Oxygen is transported to tissues as part of oxyhemoglobin. Carbohemoglobin transports a small amount of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Most of it forms carbonic acid with water, which in turn forms potassium and sodium bicarbonates. They carry carbon dioxide to the lungs.

EXAMPLES OF TASKS

A1. Gas exchange between blood and atmospheric air

happening in

1) lung alveoli 3) tissues

2) bronchioles 4) pleural cavity

A2. Breathing is a process

1) obtaining energy from organic compounds with the participation of oxygen

2) energy absorption during the synthesis of organic compounds

3) the formation of oxygen during chemical reactions

4) simultaneous synthesis and decomposition of organic compounds.

A3. The respiratory organ is not:

1) larynx

3) oral cavity

A4. One of the functions of the nasal cavity is:

1) retention of microorganisms

2) enrichment of blood with oxygen

3) air cooling

4) dehumidification

A5. The larynx protects against food entering it:

1) arytenoid cartilage 3) epiglottis

A6. The respiratory surface of the lungs is increased

1) bronchi 3) cilia

2) bronchioles 4) alveoli

A7. Oxygen enters the alveoli and from them into the blood

1) diffusion from an area with a lower gas concentration to an area with a higher concentration

2) diffusion from an area with a higher gas concentration to an area with a lower concentration

3) diffusion from body tissues

4) under the influence of nervous regulation

A8. A wound that violates the tightness of the pleural cavity will lead to

1) inhibition of the respiratory center

2) restriction of lung movement

3) excess oxygen in the blood

4) excessive mobility of the lungs

A9. The cause of tissue gas exchange is

1) the difference in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood and tissues

2) the difference in the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues

3) different rates of transition of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules from one medium to another

4) air pressure difference in the lungs and pleural cavity

Part B

IN 1. Select the processes that occur during gas exchange in the lungs

1) diffusion of oxygen from blood to tissues

2) formation of carboxyhemoglobin

3) the formation of oxyhemoglobin

4) diffusion of carbon dioxide from cells into the blood

5) diffusion of atmospheric oxygen into the blood

6) diffusion of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

IN 2. Establish the correct sequence of passage of atmospheric air through the respiratory tract

A) larynx B) bronchi D) bronchioles

B) nasopharynx D) lungs E) trachea

Part C

C1. How will the violation of the tightness of the pleural cavity of one lung affect the functioning of the respiratory system?

C2. What is the difference between pulmonary and tissue gas exchange?

SZ. Why respiratory diseases complicate the course cardiovascular diseases?