How are we really different from monkeys? How are humans different from apes

great apes or hominoids is a superfamily that includes the most highly developed representatives of the order of primates. It also includes man and all his ancestors, but they are included in a separate family of hominids and will not be considered in detail in this article.

What distinguishes an ape from a human? First of all, some features of the body structure:

The human spine curves forward and backward.

The facial part of the skull of the great ape is larger than the brain.

The relative and even absolute volume of the brain is much smaller than that of a human.

The area of ​​the cerebral cortex is also smaller, in addition, the frontal and temporal lobes are less developed.

At great apes no chin.

The chest is rounded, convex, and in humans it is flat.

The fangs of the monkey are enlarged and protrude forward.

The pelvis is narrower than in humans.

Since a person is erect, his sacrum is more powerful, since the center of gravity is transferred to it.

The monkey has a longer body and arms.

The legs, on the contrary, are shorter and weaker.

Monkeys have a flat prehensile foot with the thumb opposed to the rest. In humans, it is curved, and the thumb is parallel to the others.

A person has practically no wool cover.

In addition, there are a number of differences in thinking and activities. A person can think abstractly and communicate using speech. He has consciousness, is capable of generalizing information and compiling complex logical chains.

Signs of great apes:

large powerful body (much larger than other monkeys);

absence of a tail;

no cheek pouches

absence of ischial calluses.

Hominoids are also distinguished by their way of moving through trees. They do not run on them on all fours, like other representatives of the order of primates, but grab the branches with their hands.

Great ape skeleton also has a specific structure. The skull is located in front of the spine. At the same time, it has an elongated front part.

The jaws are strong, powerful, massive, adapted for chewing solid plant food. The arms are noticeably longer than the legs. The foot is grasping, with the thumb set aside (as on a human hand).

The great apes are, orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees. The first are singled out in a separate family, and the remaining three are combined into one - pongids. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

The gibbon family consists of four genera. All of them live in Asia: India, China, Indonesia, on the islands of Java and Kalimantan. Their color is usually gray, brown or black.

Their sizes are relatively small for great apes: the body length of the largest representatives reaches ninety centimeters, weight - thirteen kilograms.

The lifestyle is daytime. They live mainly in trees. On the ground they move uncertainly, for the most part on hind legs, only occasionally leaning on the front. However, they rarely go down. The basis of nutrition is plant foods - the fruits and leaves of fruit trees. They may also eat insects and bird eggs.

Pictured is the great ape gibbon

Gorilla is very great great ape. This is the largest representative of the family. The growth of a male can reach two meters, and weight - two hundred and fifty kilograms.

These are massive, muscular, incredibly strong and hardy monkeys. The coat color is usually black; older males may have a silvery-gray back.

They live in African forests and mountains. They prefer to be on the ground, on which they walk mainly on four legs, only occasionally rising to their feet. The diet is vegetable, includes leaves, grass, fruits and nuts.

Fairly peaceful, they show aggression towards other animals only in self-defense. Intraspecific conflicts occur, for the most part, between adult males over females. However, they are usually resolved by demonstrating threatening behavior, rarely reaching even fights, and even more so to murders.

Pictured is a gorilla monkey

Orangutans are the rarest modern great apes. Currently, they live mainly in Sumatra, although they used to be distributed throughout almost all of Asia.

These are the largest of the monkeys, living mainly in trees. Their height can reach one and a half meters, and weight - one hundred kilograms. The coat is long, wavy, and can be of various shades of red.

They live almost entirely in the trees, not even going down to get drunk. For this purpose, they usually use rainwater, which accumulates in the leaves.

For spending the night, they build nests for themselves in the branches, and every day they build a new dwelling. They live alone, forming pairs only during the breeding season.

Both modern look, Sumatran and Klimantan, are on the verge of extinction.

Pictured is an orangutan monkey

Chimpanzees are the smartest primates, great apes. They are the closest relatives of man in the animal world. There are two types of them: ordinary and dwarf, also called. The dimensions of even the usual type are not too large. The coat color is usually black.

Unlike other hominoids, with the exception of humans, chimpanzees are omnivores. In addition to plant food, they also consume animal food, obtaining it by hunting. Quite aggressive. Often there are conflicts between individuals, leading to fights and death.

They live in groups, the number of which is, on average, ten to fifteen individuals. This is a real complex society with a clear structure and hierarchy. Common habitats are forests near water. The range is the western and central part of the African continent.

Pictured is a chimpanzee monkey

Ancestors of great apes very interesting and varied. In general, there are much more fossil species in this superfamily than living ones. The first of them appeared in Africa almost ten million years ago. Their further history is very closely connected with this continent.

It is believed that the line leading to humans separated from the rest of the hominoids about five million years ago. One of the likely contenders for the role of the first ancestor of the genus Homo is considered australopithecine - great ape that lived more than four million years ago.

These creatures contain both archaic signs and more progressive, already human ones. However, the former are much more numerous, which does not allow australopithecines to be attributed directly to humans. There is also an opinion that this is a side, dead-end branch of evolution that did not lead to the emergence of more developed forms of primates, including humans.

And here is the statement that another interesting human ancestor, Sinanthropus - ape, is fundamentally wrong. However, the statement that he is the ancestor of man is not entirely correct, since this species already unequivocally belongs to the genus of people.

They already had a developed speech, language and their own, albeit primitive, but culture. It is very likely that Sinanthropus was the last ancestor of modern Homo sapiens. However, the option is not excluded that he, like Australopithecus, is the crown of a side branch of development.

6. HYPOTHESIS OF "CHIPANZOIDITY" OF THE HOMINID ANCESTOR. BOLKA'S FETALIZATION HYPOTHESIS. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS AND APETS. QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE OF THE HUMAN FROM OTHER REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD.

The most common point of view is that evolution

the human line took no more than 10 million years, and the monkey ancestor

the hominid had similarities with chimpanzees, was essentially a "chimpanzee-

similar." This position is substantiated by biomolecular and ethological

cal data. On a family tree built on the basis of

molecular facts, man is in the same cluster with chimpan-

ze, while the gorilla occupies a separate independent branch.

As a "model ancestor" of the human and chimpanzoid

ny, some anthropologists consider the pygmy chimpanzee -

bonobos (Pan paniscus) - small pongida from the jungles of Equatorial

Africa, discovered by the American scientist G. Coolidge in 1933. However,

there is another view of the bonobo - as a specialized form,

acquired dwarf body size and a number of related signs in

conditions of isolation.

Against the "chimpanzoid hypothesis" there are some possibilities.

fights. Since there is a mismatch in the rates of gene, chromo-

somatic and morphological evolution, biomolecular similarity of human

century and the chimpanzee is not in itself a sufficient reason for

in order to attribute a common ancestor to a chimpanzoic morphotype, or

mode of locomotion.

A purely biological concept of human evolution was put forward in 1918 by the anatomist L. Bolk. It has been called the "fetalization hypothesis". According to L. Bolk, a person is, as it were, an "immature" monkey. Many features of an adult - a large brain of a relatively small face, the absence of hair on the body and its presence in the form of hair on the head, weak pigmentation in some races - correspond to those of the chimpanzee embryo. The phenomenon of deceleration of development (retardation) of the embryo is known in many animals. The loss from the life cycle in animals of the adult stage, when the larva reproduces, is called neoteny. Thus, a person, according to L. Bolk, is a sexually mature embryo of a monkey (for more details, see: Kharitonov V.M., 1998, pp. 119-121). This concept has been heavily criticized. Thus, for example, it is impossible to explain the large absolute dimensions of the human brain by slowing down development. It is now clear that the propositions of the fetalization hypothesis cannot be taken literally. However, the comparative material collected by L. Bolk cannot be rejected, and the ideas of evolution due to embryonic changes find their followers.

Comparison of anatomical features convincingly speaks in favor of the fact that the human body is nothing more than the body of an anthropoid ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs. Our arms and shoulders differ little from those of chimpanzees. However, unlike the great apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright (Large apes can stand on two feet, only bending your knees, and walking on your feet, staggering from side to side.)

The adaptation of the feet to the new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs of our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, by bending over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need in the manufacture and use of tools. Walking on two legs, a more developed intellect and a varied diet - all contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and monkeys.

Compared to the size of the body, the brain and cranium of a person is much larger than that of a monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its relatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech. The jaws of modern omnivorous humans are much shorter and weaker than those of the great apes, which eat a mostly vegetarian diet. Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that, in adult monkeys, support the protruding muzzle. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dentitions of great apes arranged in the form of a Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of molars are much higher than ours. But on the other hand, human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows you to chew harder food. Differences in the structure of the tongue and throat between humans and chimpanzees allow us to make more diverse sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.

The qualitative difference between man and other representatives of the animal world.

One of the main differences between man and animal lies in his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the standpoint of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not simply adapt to the natural environment, but seeks to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, the way of life of a person changes. The ability to create tools for the transformation of the surrounding nature testifies to the ability to work consciously. Labor is a specific type of activity inherent only to man, which consists in the implementation of influences on nature in order to ensure the conditions for its existence.

The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only jointly with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of their implementation a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e. his labor activity became possible only as a result of involvement in the system of relations with other people. Thus, any work, even seemingly purely individual at first glance, requires cooperation with other people.

Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences consisted in the fact that, firstly, the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is typical to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through teamwork.

Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of the community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. Thus, the highest level of human communication - speech - has led to a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of the word. A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to make physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or idea of ​​the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.

It should be noted that it is the features of human communities, which consist in the need for collective labor, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since a person's thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, by a certain coincidence, came to animals in childhood and grew up among them, cannot speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of a modern person.

Thirdly, for the normal existence and development of human communities, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable. The collective nature of labor, the development of communication not only led to the development of thinking, but also led to the formation of specific laws of the existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and morality. At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis stated from rationalistic positions. Today, there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those stated from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues of psychology. We give preference to the rationalistic point of view, not only because such views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A.N. Leontiev, B.N. Teplov, etc.). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.

First of all, attention should be paid to the fact that the emergence of human consciousness V, the emergence of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as a biological species. The upright posture freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which in general contributed to the creation of an opportunity for a person to work. Simultaneously with this, the development of the sense organs took place. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.

We have the right to believe that the development of the sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development nervous system in general, since with the advent of man as a biological species, significant changes in the structure of the nervous system, and above all the brain, are noted. Thus, the volume of the human brain exceeds the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor - the great ape - more than twice. If in a great ape the average brain volume is 600 cm 3, then in humans it is 1400 cm 3. The surface area of ​​the cerebral hemispheres increases even more in proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans is much greater.

However, with the advent of man, there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of ​​the cortex. There are significant structural and functional changes in the brain. For example, in humans, in comparison with the great ape, the area of ​​projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased. Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex, its structural evolution is primarily due to the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are entirely carried out by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is a further corticalization of the control of behavior, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex in comparison with what is observed in animals. It should also be noted that the results of the evolution of motor organs affected the nature of structural changes in the human brain. Each muscle group is closely associated with certain motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, the motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have a different area, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the sizes of the areas of the motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of ​​the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.

Thus, the most complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. Such a conclusion is classical from the point of view of materialistic philosophy. However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but only note that the emergence of consciousness in a person as the highest known form of development of the psyche became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex labor operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of wildlife has led to the emergence of a person with specific features of the structure of the body and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined the ability of a person to work. This, in turn, led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, i.e. the logical chain of regularities mentioned above. Thus, labor was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sapiens.

It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people in terms of their mental development differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level of modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. Yes, with the acquisition practical experience, with evolution public relations there was a complication labor activity. A person gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex activities, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness. This progressive development testifies to the social nature of consciousness, which is clearly manifested in the process of development of the child's psyche.

7. Australopithecus: GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF DISTRIBUTION. MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE MASSIVE AND GRACIL AUSTRALOPITECUS. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WAY OF LIFE ACCORDING TO THE DATA OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THIS TAXON.

Autralopithecines are considered the oldest hominids. The earliest finds date back to 6-7 million years ago in Toros-Menalla (Republic of Chad). The latest dating of 900 thousand years ago is the findings of massive australopithecines in Svartkranes (South America). For the first time, the skeletal remains of Australopithecus were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin "Australis" - southern and the Greek "Pitekos" - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the oldest (3.5 million years old) skeleton of a human erect ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known to the whole world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s).

The territory of Australopithecus settlement is also very large: all of Africa south of the Sahara and, possibly, some territories to the north. As far as is known, the Australopithecus never left Africa. Inside Africa, Australopithecus locations are concentrated in two main areas: East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) and South Africa. Separate finds have also been made in North Africa; perhaps their small number is due more to the burial conditions or the poor knowledge of the region, and not to the actual distribution of Australopithecus. It is clear that in such a wide time and geographical framework, natural conditions have changed more than once, which led to the appearance of new species and genera.

Gracile Australopithecus.

In Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia, fossils have been discovered in many locations gracile australopithecines.

Gracil Australopithecus were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from that of a human. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Together with a fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these signs can only be a legacy from ancient ancestors. Like the early members of the group, the gracile australopithecines had a highly ape-like skull that matched the almost modern rest of the skeleton. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of a monkey in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between a small simian and a very large human.

During the day, Australopithecus roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecus lived in small herds or families and were able to travel quite long distances. They ate mainly plant food, and they usually did not make tools, although not far from the bones. one of the types scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them.

The best-known finds are from the Hadar area in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of erect walking creatures were found in the same layers from which the remains of Afar australopithecines are known. In addition to the Afar australopithecines, other species probably lived in East and North Africa in the time interval of 3-3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, at Lomekwi, a skull and other fossils were found, described as Kenyanthropus platyops(Kenianthropus flat-faced). In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro, a single jaw fragment was found, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Australopithecine Bahr el Ghazal). At the other end of the continent, in South Africa, in a number of locations - Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapansgat - numerous fossils have been discovered, known as Australopithecus africanus(Australopithecine Africanus). To this species belonged the first find of Australopithecus - the skull of a cub, known as "Baby from Taung". African Australopithecus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bowri and named Australopithecus garhi(Australopithecine gari).

Massive Australopithecus.

The oldest stone tools are known from several sites in Ethiopia - Gona, Shungura, Hadar - and are dated 2.5-2.7 million years ago. At the same time, new species of hominids arose, possessing a large brain and already attributable to the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to man - massive australopithecines.

Paranthropes were large - up to 70 kg in weight - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their way of life was somewhat reminiscent of the way of life of modern gorillas. However, they retained their bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In layers with paranthropes, stone tools and bone fragments were found, with which hominids tore up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.

The paranthropes relied on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with paranthropes, the remains of the first representatives of hominins, the so-called "early Homo"- more advanced hominids with large brains.

The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalei and Omo. They have dates about 2.5 million years ago and are named Paranthropus aethiopicus(Ethiopian Paranthropus). Later massive Australopithecus from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi-Fora - dating from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei(Paranthropus of Boyce). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - are known Paranthropus robustus(Paranthropes are massive). The massive Paranthropus was the second species of Australopithecus to be discovered. When examining the skull of Paranthropus, huge jaws and large bone ridges are striking, which served to attach the chewing muscles. The jaw apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first open skull of this species, due to the size of the teeth, even received the nickname "The Nutcracker".

Introduction

In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae classified man - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order within the mammal class. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: the semi-monkeys (they include lemurs and tarsiers) and the higher primates. The latter include marmosets, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. Primates share many specific features that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man, as a species, separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient apes that lived in trees and most of all resembled modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient anthropoid ape turned into a Homo sapiens due to labor – “labor created Man”.

Similarities between humans and monkeys

The relationship between man and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. For a very long time, the similarity of human embryos and monkeys remains. Specific (species) human features appear only at the latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship of man with animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: coccygeal bone (remainder of a reduced tail); crease in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); thin hair on the body (the rest of the wool); a process of the caecum - an appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include an external tail, with which very rarely, but people are born; abundant hair on the face and body; polynipple, strongly developed fangs, etc.

A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was found. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all great apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins, the amino acid sequences differ by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
Human and chimpanzee DNA contain at least 90% of similar genes.

Differences between humans and monkeys

True upright posture and related structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low extended pelvis;
- flattened in the anteroposterior direction rib cage;
- elongated compared to the arms of the legs;
- arched foot with a massive and adducted thumb;
- many features of the musculature and location internal organs;
- the brush is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the brain part of the skull to a large extent predominates over the front (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protrusion is distinctly expressed;
- the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes in terms of volume and 3-4 times in mass;
- a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only a person has articulate speech, in this regard, it is characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.

Walking on two legs

Walking upright is the most important feature of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupedal or, as is sometimes said, "four-armed."
Some marmosets (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they move on all fours like the vast majority of mammalian species.
Great apes (gorillas) mostly live on the ground, walking in a partially erect position, but often leaning on the back of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, the wide flat foot and short toes, the peculiarity of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped shock-absorbing curve of the spine when walking, the special shock-absorbing connection of the head with the spinal column.

brain enlargement

The enlarged brain puts the Man in special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average brain size of a chimpanzee, the modern human brain is three times larger. Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, had twice the size of a chimpanzee. Man has much more nerve cells and changed their position. Unfortunately, skull fossils do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between the increase in the brain and its development and upright posture.

The structure of the teeth

The transformations that have taken place in the structure of the teeth are usually associated with changes in the way of eating. ancient man. These include: a decrease in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. a gap that includes protruding fangs in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which anterior section has a rounded shape, and the lateral ones expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
In the course of hominin evolution, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints, and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.

Differences at the biomolecular level

The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their kinship with other families of primates. Methods used include: immunoassay, ie. immune response comparison various kinds primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which makes it possible to assess the degree of relationship by the degree of correspondence of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different types;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, consequently, the proximity of these species is estimated by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of this protein. These methods have shown a very close relationship of species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, in one study on protein sequencing, it was found that differences in the structure of chimpanzee and human DNA are only 1%.

The traditional explanation of anthropogenesis

The common ancestors of great apes and humans - herd narrow-nosed monkeys - lived on trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial way of life, caused by a cooling of the climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arc-shaped spinal column in an S-shape, which gave it flexibility and the ability to cushion. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of depreciation during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which ensured greater stability of the body when walking upright (reducing the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed on fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, their functions became more complicated.

The transition from the use of objects to the manufacture of tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand went through the natural selection of mutations that are useful for work. The first tools were tools for hunting and fishing. Along with vegetable, more high-calorie meat food has become more widely used. Food cooked on fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore lost its significance and gradually disappeared in the process of selection of the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys. The intestines became shorter.

The herd way of life, with the development of labor activity and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and mouthparts of monkeys into human speech organs. The origin of the language was the social labor process. Labor, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright walking, a herd lifestyle, a high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which labor activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.

Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossil remains of the Afar Australopithecus have been found in Omo (Ethiopia) and in Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but upright chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was similar to that of great apes: with a low forehead, supraorbital ridge, flat nose, cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth were gapped, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.

Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth about 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. He probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors suggest that he was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in the great apes. Some skulls show traces of an occipital crest to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but the casts show that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from the brain of great apes. According to the comparative ratio of the size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern great apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but possibly also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest Africanus find is a 5.5 million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegam in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Finds suggest that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better developed physically than the African Australopithecus. As we have said, some authors believe that both of these "southern monkeys" are respectively male and female of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to the Africanus, he had a larger and flatter skull, containing a larger brain - about 550 cu. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which set in motion massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of the Africanus, while the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars in most specimens known to us are usually heavily worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves, where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Boyce's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that he was the ancestor of the gorilla.

Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg., Small incisors designed for biting off and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked straight. With their powerful physique, they resembled a gorilla. Like gorillas, males appear to be significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Boyce's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, the crest of Australopithecus Boyce was smaller and more advanced, the face was flatter, and the fangs were less developed. Because of the huge molars and premolars, this animal was nicknamed the "nutcracker". But these teeth could not exert much pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Boyce, which are 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could use the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a man who succeeded in the use of stone tools.

A little criticism of the classical ideas about the origin of Man

If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and his intestines are almost twice as long relative to the body as those of carnivores? The jaws were already significantly reduced among the prezinjantrops, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?

In case of danger, birds soar into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge on trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with the slowness of movement and the absence of tools, except miserable sticks and stones, escape from predators?

M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev candidly also refer to the unresolved problems of anthropogenesis as the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair by people. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys keep their hair. Why did our ancestors lose it?

Why did a head of hair remain on the head of a person, while on most of the body they were reduced?

Why does a person's chin and nose protrude forward with nostrils turned down for some reason?

Incredible for evolution is the speed (as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia) of the transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens). Biologically, this is inexplicable.

A number of anthropologists believe that our distant ancestors were Australopithecus, who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but Australopithecus were terrestrial monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees lived in the savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time with him. There is evidence that Australopithecus, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, were objects of hunting for ancient people.

State educational institution of higher vocational education

"East Siberian State Academy of Education"

Man and monkey. Similarities and differences

Performed:

Ropel Alina

Group 2b3

Irkutsk 2010

1. Introduction

2. Evidence of human animal origin

3. Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals

4. Conclusion

5. Bibliographic list

1. INTRODUCTION

Great apes resemble humans in many ways. They express feelings of joy, anger, sadness, gently caress the cubs, take care of them, punish them for disobedience. They have a good memory, highly developed higher nervous activity.

J.B. Lamarck proposed a hypothesis about the origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched from climbing trees to walking upright. As a result, their body straightened, the foot changed. The need for communication led to speech. In 1871 Ch. Darwin's work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" was published. In it, he proves the kinship of man with great apes, using data from comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology. At the same time, Darwin rightly believed that not a single living ape can be considered a direct ancestor of man.

similarity difference human monkey

2. PROOF OF THE ANIMAL ORIGIN OF MAN

Man belongs to mammals, as he has a diaphragm, mammary glands, differentiated teeth (incisors, canines and molars), auricles, his embryo develops in utero. Humans have the same organs and organ systems as other mammals: circulatory, respiratory, excretory, digestive, etc.

Similarities can be traced in the development of human and animal embryos. Human development begins with a single fertilized egg. Due to its division, new cells are formed, tissues and organs of the embryo are formed. At the stage of 1.5-3 months of intrauterine development, the caudal spine is developed in the human fetus, gill slits are laid. The brain of a month-old fetus resembles the brain of a fish, and a seven-month-old fetus resembles the brain of a monkey. In the fifth month of intrauterine development, the embryo has a hairline, which subsequently disappears. Thus, in many respects, the human embryo resembles the embryos of other vertebrates.

The behavior of man and higher animals is very similar. The similarity between humans and anthropoid apes is especially great. They are characterized by the same conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. In monkeys, like in humans, one can observe developed facial expressions, care for offspring. In chimpanzees, for example, as in humans, there are 4 blood types. Humans and monkeys suffer from diseases that do not affect other mammals, such as cholera, influenza, smallpox, tuberculosis. Chimpanzees walk on their hind limbs, they do not have a tail. The genetic material of humans and chimpanzees is 99% identical.

Monkeys have a well-developed brain, including the forebrain hemispheres. In humans and monkeys, the terms of pregnancy and the patterns of embryonic development coincide. As monkeys age, their teeth fall out and their hair turns gray. An important evidence of the animal origin of man is the development of signs of distant ancestors (body hairiness, external tail, multi-mammary) and underdeveloped organs and signs that have lost their functional significance, of which there are more than 90 in humans (ear muscles, Darwin's tubercle on auricle, semilunar fold of the inner corner of the eye, appendix, etc.).

The greatest resemblance to a person in terms of such features as body proportions, relatively short upper limbs, the structure of the pelvis, hand and foot, has a gorilla; chimpanzees are similar to humans in the structural features of the skull (large roundness and smoothness), the size of the limbs. An orangutan, like a human, has 12 ribs. But this does not mean that man is descended from any of the current species of monkeys. These facts indicate that man and great apes had a common ancestor, which gave a number of branches, and evolution went in different directions.

The scientific study of the intelligence of monkeys began with Charles Darwin. He owns a book that today remains a classic in its field - "On the Expression of Sensations in Man and Animals" (1872). In it, in particular, it is shown that the facial expressions of monkeys are similar to those of humans. Darwin considered this a consequence of the similarity of facial musculature in primates.

He also determined that facial expressions, the expression of emotions are, one might say, a means of communication. Darwin also announced such a detail: the great ape is able to mimic almost all human emotions, except for amazement, surprise and disgust.

Many neurological diseases man and chimpanzee and even other monkeys are very similar. Relatively recently, it became known that the monkey is the only animal that has been successfully used in psychiatric research: in studying the model of isolation, phobia, depression, hysteria, neurasthenia, autism and other features of schizophrenia. A satisfactory model of human psychosis can be obtained from the "social" isolation of monkeys.

At present, important results, already used in practice, have been obtained by studying the model of human depression on lower monkeys. Various forms of major depression in monkeys usually developed as a result of separation of monkeys from an object of affection, such as a baby from a mother, which affected both severely. The symptomatology of depression in monkeys is in many ways parallel to similar conditions in children and adults: depressed mood, sleep disturbance, lack of appetite, a clear decrease in motor activity, loss of interest in games. It has been shown that cubs of different species of macaques isolated from peers or from mothers, just like the females themselves, develop disorders cellular immunity similar to those that occur in adults after a bereavement. The state of depression in monkeys can last for years, and most importantly, already in the adult state, the animal turns out to be biologically inferior, and it is extremely difficult to cure it. Separation causes not only depression, but also other disorders, each time associated with the "personal" life history of each individual.

The emotions of monkeys (not necessarily higher, but also lower!) are not just similar to human ones. They often appear "humanly"; the heart of an annoyed baboon is ready to jump out of his chest, but he hides his indignation from others, is "calm", slowed down, and, conversely, the animal unambiguously threatens the enemy, demonstrates formidable fangs and sharply raises his eyebrows, and there are no changes in vegetative functions. (It may be noted that arterial pressure, and an electrocardiogram, the heart rate in monkeys is the same as in humans).

The higher apes are amenable to hypnosis, which can be induced in them by conventional means. It has recently been shown that gorillas predominantly use right hand, and this indicates a brain asymmetry in monkeys, similar to the asymmetry of the human brain.

A particularly large neurological and behavioral similarity between humans and higher apes was established in infancy and in childhood. Psychomotor development in a baby chimpanzee and a child proceeds in the same way.

The immobility of the ear of monkeys and humans is unique, which is why they have to turn their heads in the same direction in order to hear better in the direction of the sound source. It has been proven that chimpanzees distinguish between 22 colors, up to 7 shades of one tone. There is evidence of similarities in higher primates of smell, taste, touch, and even perception of the weight of the weights lifted. Studying various representatives of vertebrates, physiologists trace the path of development and gradual complication of the higher nervous activity of animals, their ability to store in memory developed conditioned reflexes.

We can say that man, chimpanzee and orangutan are the only creatures on Earth that recognize themselves in the mirror! The authors talk about the presence of self-recognizing monkeys in elementary ideas about their own "I". Many consider self-recognition to be the highest form of associative behavior in the animal kingdom. Chimpanzee in different situations makes the most adequate decision: excellently uses a lever, a key, a screwdriver, a stick, a stone and other objects, searches and finds them if they are not at hand.

3. DIFFERENCES IN THE STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS

Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.

In monkeys, the spine is arched, while in humans it has four bends, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot that softens the concussion of internal organs when walking, a wide chest, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, structural features of muscles and internal organs.

A number of structural features of a person are associated with his labor activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to other fingers, so that the hand can perform a variety of actions. The brain part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial part due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm3 (in monkeys - 600 cm3), mandible well developed chin.

The big differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the first to life on trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The essential differences between man and animals lie in the fact that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, the release of hands and their use as labor organs for the manufacture of tools, articulate speech as a method of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subordinates, actively changes it according to his needs, creates the necessary things himself.

4. SIMILARITIES OF HUMANS AND APES

The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

Monkeys have concrete thinking.

Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, leaning on their hands.

On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

In humans and monkeys common diseases(influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

Biochemical evidence for human-monkey affinity :

the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

Cytological evidence of the proximity of man and monkeys:

humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

CONCLUSION

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and make it possible to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is evidence of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans", which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative originality and significance of social factors in the historical development of man.

The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our ancient ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to a straight gait. In labor activity, articulate speech has developed and public life man, with whom, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is conditioned only by biological laws, then human psyche is the result of social development and influence.

Man is a social being who has created a majestic civilization.

REFERENCES

1. Panov E.N. Zykova L.Yu. Behavior of animals and humans: similarities and differences. Pushchino-on-Oka, 1989.

2. Sifard R.M., Cheney D.L. Mind and thinking in monkeys // In the world of science. 1993. No. 2-3.

3. Stolyarenko V.E., Stolyarenko L.D. "Anthropology - a systematic science of man", M .: "Phoenix", 2004.

4. Khomutov A. "Anthropology", M.: "Phoenix", 2004.

5. Reader on zoopsychology and comparative psychology: Tutorial/ Comp. M.N. Sotskaya MGPPU, 2003.

6. Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. "Anthropology. Textbook. Edition 4, Moscow: MGU, 2005.

7. Yarskaya-Smirnova E.R., Romanov P.V. "Social Anthropology", M.: social protection, 2004.

The unique properties of man confirm the story of Genesis - they were given to him as part of the ability to"possession of the earth and dominion over animals", creativity and changing the world ( Genesis 1:28 ). They reflect the gulf that separates us from the apes.

To date, science has uncovered many differences between us and apes that cannot be explained by minor internal changes, rare mutations, or survival of the fittest.

Physical differences

1. Tails - where did they go? There is no intermediate state "between the tails".

2. Many primates and most mammals produce their own vitamin C. 1 We, as the "strongest", apparently lost this ability "somewhere along the way to survival."

3. Our newborns are different from baby animals. . Our babies helplessand more dependent on their parents. They can neither stand nor run, while newborn monkeys can hang and move from place to place. Is this progress?

4. People need a long childhood. Chimpanzees and gorillas mature at 11 or 12 years of age. This fact is contrary to evolution, since, logically, the survival of the fittest should require a shorter period of childhood.

5. We have different skeletal structures. The human being as a whole is structured quite differently. Our torso is shorter, while in monkeys it is longer than the lower limbs.

6 Monkeys Have Long Arms And Short Legs We, on the contrary, have short arms and long legs.

7. A person has a special S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves, the monkeys do not have a curved spine. Man has the largest total number of vertebrae.

8. A person has 12 pairs of ribs, and a chimpanzee has 13 pairs.

9. In humans, the rib cage is deeper and barrel-shaped. , while chimpanzees have a cone shape. In addition, a cross section of chimpanzee ribs shows that they are rounder than human ribs.

10 Monkey Feet Look Like Their Hands - their big toe is mobile, directed to the side and opposed to the rest of the fingers, resembling the thumb. In humans, the big toe points forward and is not opposed to the rest.

11. Human feet are unique. – they promote bipedal walking and cannot be compared with appearance and monkey foot function..

12. Monkeys have no arch in their feet! When walking, our foot thanks to the archcushionsall loads, shocks and impacts.

13. The structure of the human kidney is unique.

14. A person does not have a continuous hairline.

15. People have fat body fat that monkeys don't have. This makes our skin look more like a dolphin's skin.

16. Human skin is rigidly attached to the muscular frame, which is characteristic only of marine mammals.

17. Humans are the only terrestrial beings capable of consciously holding their breath. This, at first glance, "insignificant detail" is very important.

18. Only humans have the whites of their eyes. All monkeys have completely dark eyes.

19. The contour of the human eye is unusually elongated. in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.

20. Man has a distinct chin, but monkeys do not.

21. Most animals, including chimpanzees, have large mouths. We have a small mouth with which we can articulate better.

22. Wide and inverted lips – feature person; higher apes have very thin lips.

23. Unlike the higher apes,a person has a protruding nose with a well-developed elongated tip.

24. Only humans can grow long hair on the head.

25. Among primates, only humans are found Blue eyes and curly hair.

26. We have a unique speech apparatus providing the finest articulation and articulate speech.

27. In humans, the larynx occupies a much lower position. in relation to the mouth than in monkeys. Due to this, our pharynx and mouth form a common “tube”, which plays an important role as a speech resonator. Features of the structure and function of the organs of sound reproduction in humans and monkeys http://andrej102.narod.ru/tab_morf.htm

28. A person has a special language - thicker, taller and more mobile than monkeys. And we have multiple muscle attachments to the hyoid bone.

29. Humans have fewer jaw muscles connected to each other than monkeys, - we do not have bone structures for their attachment (very important for the ability to speak).

30. Man is the only primate whose face is not covered with hair.

31. The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous brow ridges.

32. Human skull has a vertically positioned face with protruding nasal bones, but the skull of monkeys has a sloping face with flat nasal bones.

33. Different structure of teeth. In humans, the jaw is smaller and the dental arch is parabolic, the anterior section has a rounded shape. Monkeys have a U-shaped dental arch. Canine teeth are shorter in humans, while all great apes have protruding fangs.

34. Humans can exercise fine motor control that monkeys don't have, and perform delicate physical operations thanks tounique connection of nerves with muscles .

35. A person has more motor neurons, controlling muscle movements than in chimpanzees.

36. The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightfully be called a miracle of design. The articulation in the human hand is much more complex and skillful than that of primates.

37. Thumb our hand well developed, strongly opposed to the rest and very mobile. Monkeys have hooked hands with a short and weak thumb. No element of culture would exist without our unique thumb!

38. The human hand is capable of two unique compressions that monkeys cannot do. , - accurate (for example, holding a baseball) and power (grabbing the crossbar with your hand). A chimpanzee cannot produce a strong grip, while the application of force is the main component of a power grip.

39. In humans, the fingers are straight, shorter and more mobile than those of a chimpanzee.

40 True bipedalism is inherent only in man . The particular human approach requires the intricate integration of the many skeletal and muscular features of our hips, legs, and feet.

41. Humans are able to support their body weight on their feet while walking because our hips converge to our knees, forming with the tibiaunique bearing angle at 9 degrees (in other words, we have "turned knees").

42. Special location of our ankle joint allows the tibia to make direct movements relative to the foot while walking.

43. The human femur has a special edge for muscle attachment (Linea aspera), which is absent in great apes.5

44. In humans, the position of the pelvis relative to the longitudinal axis of the body is unique, in addition, the very structure of the pelvis differs significantly from the pelvis of monkeys - all this is necessary for upright walking. We have a relative width of wings ilium the pelvis (width/length x 100) is much larger (125.5) than that of a chimpanzee (66.0). Based on this feature alone, it can be argued that a person is fundamentally different from a monkey.

45. People have unique knees - they can be fixed at full extension, making the patella stable, and are located closer to the middle sagittal plane, being under the center of gravity of our body.

46. ​​The human femur is longer than the chimpanzee femur. and usually has an elevated rough line that holds the rough line femur under the handle.

47. A person hastrue inguinal ligament which is not found in the great apes.

48. The human head is placed on top of the spine , while in great apes it is "suspended" forward, and not up.

49. A person has a large vaulted skull , taller and more rounded. The monkey skull has been simplified.

50. The complexity of the human brain is far superior to that of monkeys. . It is about 2.5 times larger than the brain of higher monkeys in terms of volume and 3–4 times in mass.

51. The period of pregnancy in humans is the longest among primates. For some, this may be another fact that contradicts the theory of evolution.

52. Human hearing is different from that of chimpanzees and most other apes. Human hearing is characterized by a relatively high sensitivity of perception - from two to four kilohertz, and chimpanzee ears are tuned to sounds that reach a maximum value either at a frequency of one kilohertz or eight kilohertz.

53. Selective ability of individual cells located in the auditory zone of the human cerebral cortex:"A single human auditory neuron .. (capable of) .. distinguishing subtle differences in frequencies, up to one tenth of an octave - and this is compared to a cat's sensitivity of about one octave and half a full octave in a monkey."This level of recognition is not needed for simple speech discrimination, but is necessary forto listen to music and appreciate all its beauty .

54. Human sexuality is different from the sexuality of all other animal species. . it long-term partnerships, co-parenting, private sex, indistinguishable ovulation, stronger sensuality in women, and sex for pleasure.

55 Sexual relations in humans do not have a seasonal restriction .

56. Only humans are known to go through menopause. (except for the black dolphin).

57. Man is the only primate whose chest is visible even during periodswhen he does not feed her offspring.

58. Monkeys can always recognize when the female ovulates. We are usually unable to do this. Face-to-face contact in the mammalian world is very rare.

59. A person has a hymen , which is not found in any great ape. In monkeys, the penis contains a special gutter bone (cartilage)which a person does not have.

60. Since the human genome contains about 3 billion nucleotides,even a minimal difference of 5% represents 150 million different nucleotides , which roughly corresponds to 15 million words or 50 huge books of information. The differences represent at least 50 million individual mutation events, which is impossible for evolution to achieve even with an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations -It's just unrealistic fantasy! The evolutionary belief is untrue and contradicts everything that science knows about mutations and genetics.

61. The human Y chromosome differs from the chimpanzee Y chromosome as much as from the chicken chromosomes.

62. Chimpanzees and gorillas have 48 chromosomes, while we only have 46.

63. There are genes in human chromosomes that are completely absent in chimpanzees. This fact reflects the difference between immune systems man and chimpanzee.

64. In 2003, scientists calculated a difference of 13.3% between the areas responsible for the immune systems.

65. A 17.4% difference in gene expression in the cerebral cortex was found in another study.

66. The chimpanzee genome has been found to be 12% larger than the human genome. This difference was not taken into account when comparing DNA.

67. human geneFOXP2(which plays an important role in the ability to speak) and simiannot only differ in appearance, but also perform different functions . The FOXP2 gene in chimpanzees is not speech at all, but performs completely different functions, having different effects on the work of the same genes.

68. The section of DNA in humans that determines the shape of the hand is very different from the DNA of a chimpanzee. Science continues to discover their important role.

69. At the end of each chromosome is a strand of a repetitive DNA sequence called a telomere. Chimpanzees and other primates have about 23 kb. (1 kb is equal to 1000 nucleic acid base pairs) of repeating elements.Humans are unique among all primates, their telomeres are much shorter: only 10 kb long.

70. Genes and marker genes in the 4th, 9th and 12th human and chimpanzee chromosomesare not in the same order.

71. In chimpanzees and humans, genes are copied and reproduced in different ways. This point is often overlooked in evolutionary propaganda when discussing the genetic similarities between apes and humans. This testimony is a great support for reproduction "after its kind" ( Genesis 1:24–25).

72. Humans are the only creaturesable to cry, expressing strong emotional experiences . Only a person sheds tears in sorrow.

73. We are the only ones who are able to laugh, reacting to a joke or expressing emotions. The "smile" of a chimpanzee is purely ritual, functional and has nothing to do with feelings. By showing their teeth, they make it clear to their relatives that there is no aggression in their actions. The "laugh" of the monkeys sounds completely different and more like the sounds of a breathless dog, or an asthma attack in humans. Even the physical aspect of laughter is different: humans laugh only on the exhale, while monkeys laugh on both the exhale and inhale.

74. In monkeys, adult males never provide food for others. , in man - this is the main duty of men.

75. We are the only creatures that blush due to relatively minor events.

76. Man builds houses and makes fire. The lower apes do not take care of housing at all, the higher apes build only temporary nests.

77. Among primates, no one can swim like a person. We are the only ones whose heart rate automatically slows down when immersed in water and moves in it, and does not increase, as in land animals.

78. The social life of people is expressed in the formation of the state is a purely human phenomenon. The main (but not the only) difference between human society and the relations of domination and subordination formed by primates lies in people's awareness of their semantic meaning.

79. Monkeys have a rather small territory,and the man is big.

80. Our newborn children have weak instincts; most of their skills they acquire in the learning process. Man, unlike monkeys,acquires its own special form of existence "in freedom" , in an open relationship with living beings and, above all, with people, while an animal is born with an already established form of its existence.

81. "Relative Hearing" is a purely human ability . Humans have a unique ability to recognize pitch based on the relationship between sounds. This ability is called"relative pitch". Some animals, such as birds, can easily recognize a range of repeated sounds, but if the notes are shifted slightly down or up (i.e. change the key), the melody becomes completely unrecognizable to the birds. Only humans can guess a melody whose key has been changed even a semitone up or down. The relative hearing of a person is another confirmation of the uniqueness of a person.

82. People wear clothes . Man is the only creature that looks out of place without clothes. All animals look funny in clothes!