Psychoanalysis in psychology. Psychoanalysis: Basic concepts and ideas of psychoanalysis Mysteries of modern psychoanalysis Personality in the representation of psychoanalysis

As scientists ironically, Freud was 50% right and 100% wrong. Indeed, in publications, films, books, opposite opinions are expressed about him, and psychoanalysis is generally called pseudoscience. But with all this, Freud was and remains the central figure of modern psychotherapy. World psychology has been referring to this great man for almost 100 years. And we daily use the words associated with his theory: the phallic symbol, the Oedipus complex or the Freudian slip.

In the article we talk about the background and history of psychoanalysis, its key postulates, levels of personality and why Freud is called a brilliant PR man.

What is psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalysis is a metapsychological theory founded by Sigmund Freud that combines several psychotherapeutic schools and directions. The basic postulates of psychoanalysis were formed at the end of the 19th century at the border of practical medicine, psychological theory and its practical application. Today, the term "psychoanalysis" is used in a threefold sense:

• Like a philosophical teaching about the structure of mental life, the interaction of individual substructures.
• Like a psychological theory about the study of unconscious processes that cannot be studied in any other way.
• As a psychotherapeutic method of treatment neuroses and mental health.

According to Freud, memories of early childhood events (especially unpleasant ones) hide deep, deep in us. We can't remember them, but we can't forget either. Repressed events are never left alone, they limit, poison life, spoil relationships, cause painful symptoms. Freud not only found out the causes of recurring mental problems, but came up with a method that helps to unravel the tangle of painful childhood secrets and deal with the "ghosts" of the past. And he called this method psychoanalysis.

Key postulates of psychoanalysis:

1. A person is not a full-fledged master of his mind - thoughts, experience, knowledge, thinking are largely predetermined by internal and irrational processes that are beyond the control of consciousness.
2. As soon as a person tries to realize these drives, the psyche turns on the protective mechanisms of denial, transfer, repression, projection, rationalization.
3. Conflicts between the conscious and unconscious perception of reality can provoke psycho-emotional disorders, neuroses, phobias, sexual deviations and disorders (frigidity or impotence, for example).
4. Conscious and unconscious desires, fears, desires directly affect our dreams.
5. Individual development is predetermined not only by the events of early childhood.
6. All five phases of psychosexual development leave their imprint in the form of painful experiences, attitudes, character traits, values.

Freud's psychoanalysis was the first system in modern psychology that considered not individual aspects of a person's problem, but a person as a whole person. The psychoanalytic method does not guarantee healing or correction of the situation, but helps:

• Get working tools to get into your psyche and make unconscious processes more apparent.
• Work out the personal unconscious and correct the psyche.
• To reveal previously inaccessible unconscious material so as to study and change it with the help of consciousness.
• Decipher and interpret all the contradictions that arise in consciousness, relationships.
• Explore and integrate your own unconscious experience in order to stop "stepping on the same rake".
• Research client requests: What is happening to me? Why is this happening to me? And thanks to this answer to main question: What to do with it?

In the 21st century, Sigmund Freud is recognized as one of the most mentioned psychoanalysts, and psychoanalysis is of general interest. Moreover, the same interest in the form of psychotherapeutic experience and in the form of criticism of most of the postulates.

Criticism of Freud's theory

Academic psychology in the 21st century prefers not to mention Freud as a reliable source. This is explained by the fact that the entire psychoanalysis, in fact, is built on a dozen clinical cases from Freud's practice. But that's not the point. Here are the main reasons for criticism:

• Freud conducted his observations haphazardly, worked on the basis of notes made a few hours after the end of the therapy session. Therefore, it is highly likely that when reproducing the conversation, the scientist interpreted the data at his own discretion.
• There is no scientific support for the idea that boys subconsciously lust after their mothers and dislike their fathers. As well as evidence that women envy the male genitals.
• The scientist's view of the activity of the "male" and the passivity of everything "female" causes anger among minded public figures.
• It is believed that the scientist ignored psychic powers that do not have a physiological source. Hence Freud's appeal to sexuality and everything connected with it.
• Freudianism is called closed system”, which ignores any denials.

Famous critics of psychoanalytic theory consider V. Nabokov, Pierre Janet, Erich Fromm, V. Leybin, L. Stevenson, G. Eysenck. The psychological direction generally recognizes psychoanalysis as a pseudoscience, and some critics distort the name of the scientist, call him « Fraud"-"Scammer"(translated from English).

However, the psychoanalytic direction in psychology today is considered the most powerful. Freud founded it and left behind 24 volumes of scientific works. It is difficult to overestimate his contribution to psychological science. No wonder A. Einstein called him "Copernicus of the unconscious."

Background to psychoanalytic theory

Freud's main "PR move" is considered to be his authorship in the discovery of the unconscious. But the scientists of Antiquity spoke about the fact that consciousness does not single-handedly “control” the psyche. Back in the 4th century BC, the ancient Greek healer Hippocrates, observing epilepsy, suggested the presence of an extraconscious control system. In the 11th century, the Arab scientist Al-Hassan, while studying visual illusions, described mental activity that is not realized by a person. These theories became the basis of psychoanalysis.

Since the early Christian period, the topics of female, sexual desire, self-satisfaction, sexual education were hushed up or studied within the framework of pathology. By the end of the 19th century, religion had ceased to "calm", and the problem of neuroticism and sexuality began to take over the world. At the same time, European psychiatrists began to actively publish works on sexual anomalies. The very category of "sex" became fundamentally new, since from the point of view of religion, all desires for pleasure were reduced to the sins of the flesh. Sometimes it reached the point of absurdity. For example, in secular salons draped chandeliers, piano legs - any objects that vaguely resemble phallic symbols.

Freud was not an innovator in the topic of the study of sexuality or theories about the unconscious. He drew his knowledge from the works of the French psychiatrist Pierre Janet, his scientific mentor, the famous neuropathologist J. Charcot. Other sources for the Freudian theory were the "doctrine of monads" by Wilhelm Leibniz, Darwin's evolutionary doctrine, Haeckel's bioenergetic law, and the theory of dreams by K. Carus.

Indeed, the discovery of psychoanalysis was not the result of the research of Sigmund Freud alone. But in his discoveries he went further than his teachers. Psychoanalytic theory itself became innovative. On its basis, psychodrama, NLP, transactional analysis and other areas that recognize the supremacy of the unconscious were built.

Freud developed the basic terms of psychoanalysis and described:

• Structural model of the psyche.
• Psychosexual phases of development.
• (in boys), (in girls).
• Defense mechanisms of the psyche.
• Method of free associations.
• dream interpretation technique.
• transference and countertransference.
• Ideas of children's sexuality.

Famous followers of Freudian ideas are the Austrian doctor J. Breuer, the Austro-American psychoanalyst T. Reik, and the American psychoanalyst Karen Horney. Later, the theory of A. Adler’s “feeling of inferiority” “budded off” from the psychoanalytic base, “ affective disorders» V. Shtekel, analytical psychology of C. Jung.

Freud's theory, revolutionary and scandalous for that time, still influences the development of science, is criticized, provokes new revelations, and causes controversy and discussion. A scientist can be criticized or admired, but it is impossible not to respect his contribution to science.

Basic ideas of psychoanalysis

The main idea of ​​psychoanalysis is based on the statement: in the mental nature of a person there are no accidents or inconsistencies, and any events of the past affect the future. Hence the assertion that the main cause of neurosis or an adult is unconscious childhood fantasies or forgotten childhood events.

Based on the theory of the relationship between the past and the present, Freud divided the psyche into three areas.

Three in One: Id, Ego, Super-Ego

According to Freud's theory, a person's personality is the interaction of three mental instances:

Id (translated from Latin - "It"): a set of drives that energize any action. This is an archaic structure of the psyche, controlled by basic instincts (the main ones are aggression and sex) and basic ones. The irrational id obeys the "pleasure principle" and seeks to get the most out of every moment. However, if only It controlled man, he would be no different from animals. Therefore, during the period of growing up and interaction of the child with the outside world, the second structure of the personality is formed - the Ego.

Ego (translated from Latin - "I"): rational intermediary between "want" and "should". This is the conscious mental world of a person, which protects against harmful influence from the outside and inhibits instincts in order to meet the requirements of society. The ego plans, reasons, evaluates, remembers, responds to physical and social influences. That is, conscious life takes place precisely in the ego. Unlike the nature of the id, the ego tries to delay its deep impulses until it finds a suitable opportunity to discharge. According to Freud, the ego seeks pleasure. But he avoids displeasure.

Super-ego (translated from Latin - "super-I”): an internal limiter that prevents desires from manifesting directly. This is a judge, a censor, a repository of moral attitudes and value systems that are compatible with generally accepted norms - a "branch" of public morality in a person's head. The super-ego is absent in the newly born organism, but appears at the moment when the child begins to distinguish good from bad. This is a dual structure, divided into Conscience and Ego-Ideal. Conscience is formed during education and is associated with the disapproval of everything that is considered to be "disobedience". The ego-ideal is associated with or, since it is formed from the approval and high marks of significant people.

Such a multi-layered psyche divides psychoanalysis into two problem-theoretical areas. The first is connected with the medical treatment of neuroses, personality disorders. During clinical psychoanalysis, basic knowledge about a sick or healthy psyche is obtained. The second direction is formed on the basis of practical experience, is used in everyday psychotherapy and interacts with other therapeutic theories: reflexology, body therapy.

Libido, sexuality and aggression: the main motives for our actions

Sexuality and aggression have long traveled from fairy tale to fairy tale under the guise of goddesses, gods, queens, knights, dragons, heroes and beauties. But in scientific theory, they appeared relatively recently. According to Freud, it is instincts that drive a person:

Libido (attraction, desire). The basic psychoanalytic concept was originally used as a synonym for unconscious sexual urge. The redirected (sublimated) energy of sexuality can be transformed into useful activity, while the repressed one can provoke pathological changes psyche.

Aggression (or death instinct). Freud was less interested in the problem of aggressive behavior. But repressed aggression, like repressed sexuality, can cause neurotic diseases, personality disorders.

Self-Defense Mechanisms

Psychological defenses are self-deception mechanisms that help us “hide” unwanted memories, reduce traumatic experiences, and not be aware of our own desires that contradict our opinion of ourselves. These include:

• Crowding out: forget what causes psychological discomfort.
• Projection: unconsciously we attribute our own experiences, feelings, desires to other people.
• Sublimation: we transform unspent energy into different types of activity (creativity, sports).
• Negation: we ignore the obvious facts, protecting the psyche from trauma.
• Regression: we adapt to the traumatic situation, mentally returning to childhood (we cry, act up, hide).
• Rationalization: we try to see reasonable arguments in a situation of failure or discomfort in order to save .
• Jet formation: we substitute behaviors and feelings with opposite meanings (hatred instead of).

Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: what's the difference?

Psychoanalysis is not synonymous with psychotherapy. These are different concepts. Moreover, supporters of psychoanalysis call it a separate discipline that has nothing to do with psychotherapy or psychology. And among similar disciplines are called literature, linguistics, cybernetics, media.

The founding father of psychoanalysis emphasized its exploratory-theoretical nature. Later, several psychotherapeutic schools and directions were formed within this theory. But the main goal of psychoanalysis has not changed. It enables the patient to explore his psyche through immersion in the unconscious, to discover the inner world.

Nine facts about psychoanalysis:

1. A psychoanalysis session is a sacrament in which only the client and the psychoanalyst participate.
2. The personality of the psychoanalyst is one of the main tools in psychoanalytic work. He must inspire complete confidence in the patient in order to jointly experience the most hidden conflicts and tragedies.
3. The position of the patient lying on the couch is another difference between psychoanalysis and other methods of psychotherapy, where the patient and the psychologist are facing each other.
4. Psychoanalysis is personal oriented. The focus of the study is the personality as a whole with its "good" and "bad" manifestations.
5. A psychoanalytic session will not immediately give noticeable relief to the patient. On the contrary, disease processes can become aggravated and cause additional suffering.
6. The work goes in all directions: with personality disorders, psychological problems, with everyone who wants to understand themselves better. Psychoanalysts do not work only with mentally ill people who need medication.
7. An experienced psychoanalyst can reconstruct past events from fragmentary memories, fragments of dreams, behavioral, reservations, forgotten intentions. But this will take time.
8. Frequency of sessions: 1-5 per week. Duration of therapy: from 4 to 7-10 years.
9. During prolonged interaction with the psychoanalyst, the patient may experience different feelings towards the analyst (including sexual attraction). But this is one of the important stages of working with the unconscious, described as a reaction of transference and countertransference.

Today it has been proven that Freud was wrong in many ways, and most of his postulates are now recognized as untenable. To recognize a scientist as a genius or not is a personal matter for everyone. But it is irrational to do two things: a) take all the initial theories seriously; b) underestimate Freud's contribution to psychology, philosophy and medicine. Yet in its time, psychoanalysis was a revolution in psychology.

He explored the human mind more thoroughly than all his predecessors. His contribution to scientific psychology is invaluable: Freud's theory was the greatest discovery of its time. In addition, we use many of the terms introduced by this scientist in our daily life today: libido, denial, suppression, "Freudian slip."

He is called the father of psychoanalysis. His works are read and quoted, he is praised, but at the same time severely criticized to this day. Truly, Sigmund Freud is one of the most controversial personalities in world science.

How it all began: the case of Anna O.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory was born at the end of the 19th century. Of no small importance for its formation was one particular case.

Dr. Freud was approached by a young woman, Bertha Pappenheim. The patient complained about the appearance of symptoms of an unknown disease, which appeared and then disappeared. From time to time, Bertha experienced terrible migraines, her hands went numb and seemed to take away her hands, there were problems with her eyesight, and sometimes it seemed to her that the walls were about to collapse right on her head. There was no apparent physical reason for everything that was happening.

Freud's teacher, Dr. Breuer, took over the treatment of this patient. He helped the girl remember and seem to relive some of the traumatic events of her life. In the course of such therapy, certain successes were noted, and Dr. Breuer referred Bertha to his colleague and student, Sigmund Freud. This case history was subsequently included in the book "A Study in Hysteria", which was published in 1895. For ethical reasons, the patient's real name was changed to a pseudonym - Anna O.

This is how the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud was born.

What is hysteria

Bertha Pappenheim was diagnosed with hysteria. All the symptoms that tormented her were the result not of a disease of the body, but of an alarming state of mind. The young woman experienced very hard changes in her relationship with her father, and then his death, and Freud concluded that all painful thoughts were reflected in her bodily condition.

However, a scientist would not be a scientist if everything ended on the description of one story “popular” in those days of illness. Freud went further and, based on several clinical cases, concluded that the human psyche exists on several levels. This is how Freud's theory of personality arose.

Iceberg of psychic reality

Freud called his first model of personality "topographic". He presented the human psyche in the form of an iceberg, only a small part of the area of ​​​​which is on the surface, while the base is securely hidden from prying eyes. The tip of this iceberg is consciousness, that is, what a person can subjectively perceive as the reality of the external world. The subconscious mind is a large part of the psyche, containing primitive desires and impulses.

Freud believed that some events or desires are too frightening, painful for people. And then, against their will, a person forgets about them. Thoughts about them are forced out of consciousness and sink deep, closer to the base of the "iceberg". This is how Freud's "Theory of the Unconscious" is formulated in general terms.

The scientist suggested that the repressed has a greater impact on a person's life than he can imagine. As in the case of Bertha Pappenheim, it is possible for certain physical symptoms to appear without a cause. And then a person can be helped in only one way - to make the unconscious conscious.

"Three whales of the human psyche"

Freud's personality theory has been modernized over time. In 1923, he proposed a structural model of the psyche based on the ideas of the "Id", "Ego" and "Super-Ego". These are not any specific areas of the brain or psyche, but rather hypothetical formations corresponding to important mental functions.

Thus, the "Id" is completely unconscious. It is formed by two opposite drives, Eros and Thanatos. The first of these instincts is the instinct of love. It helps a person to survive by supporting the basic functions of life, such as food, breathing, sex. The energy created by Eros is called libido.

Thanatos is the death instinct. Freud's psychological theory considers it as a set of destructive forces inherent in all human beings. When this energy is directed outward to other people, it takes the form of aggression and violence. Sigmund Freud believed that Eros is still stronger than Thanatos, and only thanks to this can a person survive, and not destroy himself.

The ego develops from the id during infancy. This structure of the psyche can be attributed to the conscious, it personifies the personality of a person. "Id" is sometimes compared to a capricious child with many conflicting desires. And this child is used to demanding their fulfillment. The purpose of the "Ego" is to satisfy all the needs of the "Id" in a safe and socially acceptable way.

The superego also develops in childhood. It occurs when the child begins to identify with the parent of the same gender. The "super-ego" is sometimes called conscience, as it is responsible for a person's observance of moral principles. It motivates us to socially approved behavior. And if it doesn't, the Super Ego makes us feel guilty.

Thus, Freud's theory of personality states that the human psyche is controlled by the trinity described above: "Id", "Ego" and "Super-Ego".

Defense mechanisms

Sometimes the "Ego" for some reason cannot satisfy the age-old dispute between the "Id" and the "Super-Ego". A state of deep anxiety arises, which can be overcome only with the help of the so-called psychological defense mechanisms.

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis says that a person seeks to defend himself from those feelings and thoughts that become unbearable for his consciousness. All psychological defense mechanisms can be divided into pathological, neurotic, immature and mature. Let's dwell on them in more detail.

Pathological mechanisms sometimes manifest themselves in dreams and altered states of consciousness. But they are also present in real life, while others perceive the person who manifests them as crazy. Examples of such defenses are delusional projections and distortions, when someone perceives reality not as it is. In addition, denial is also a pathological mechanism: when a person does not want to admit that certain events in his life did happen.

Immature psychological defenses are characteristic of adolescents. They manifest themselves in the departure from the difficult objective reality into their own fictional world. For example, a person can idealize another, realizing deep down that in reality he is not so good. The immature defense mechanism is projection. This is an attribution to another person of one's feelings, thoughts, experiences. Freud's theory, by the way, became the first psychological doctrine in which the projection mechanism was revealed.

Neurotic defense mechanisms are recognized by psychologists as effective, but only for a short time. In the future, they seem to become a habit and bring only trouble to a person. Examples are the mechanisms of regression, displacement, intellectualization. What it is? Regression brings a person to an earlier level of development, and he reacts to any problems in the way he behaved in childhood. Displacement occurs when aggression moves from one object to another, more accessible one. For example, a woman may be angry with her husband, but yell at a child. With the help of intellectualization, a person tries to replace his own unwanted thoughts or emotions with others, those that he considers more acceptable.

Mature psychological defenses are called so because they are used by adults, mature personalities. These mechanisms help a person integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts while remaining virtuous in the eyes of others. Mature psychological defenses include humor, altruism, identification, sublimation, and some others.

Altruism is selfless service to others, from which the person himself receives moral satisfaction. Humor allows you to express your true thoughts, but at the same time veil them, translate them into a joke. Identification is an imitation of another person, accepting him as a true standard. Sublimation deserves special attention.

Sublimation according to Freud

The father of psychoanalysis believed that this psychological defense mechanism contributed to the emergence of many works of art. As mentioned above, sublimation belongs to the category of mature psychological defenses.

What is the concept of sublimation? Freud's psychoanalytic theory interprets it as follows. Sometimes a person consciously transforms impulses that are not approved by society into something that humanity considers beautiful. That is, some energy of the libido, which cannot find a way out in the state in which it exists, is directed by the person himself in a different direction. For example, a man who passionately desires someone else's wife, but does not allow himself any encroachments in her direction, can begin to write beautiful poems from this love longing.

Freud believed that our society can be considered developed and mature only because it has sublimation as a psychological defense mechanism. The scientist himself paid great attention to the concept of the influence of culture on society, as well as the development of the latter. But he did not disregard the development of personality.

Freud's theory of development

Freud lived in a society that encouraged its members to suppress their own sexual instincts. In many cases, neuroses have resulted from this. Dr. Freud examined the medical histories of his neurotic patients, and studied aspects of their personal lives. As a result, he came to the conclusion that mental illness is not a consequence of sexual experience as such, but of the feelings that he brought with him: hatred, shame, guilt, fear.

This understanding led to the fact that Freud's theory was enriched by the most controversial concept perceived in our time - the stages of psychosexual development.

What is psychosexuality?

Freud believed that the baby is endowed with sexuality from birth. For the first half of the 20th century, such a statement was unheard of audacity, and it was one of the reasons why Freud's psychoanalytic theory was criticized by the great minds of the time.

But let us return to the doctrine of psychosexuality. Freud claimed that mental development personality development is associated with the passage of certain stages, at each of which the child receives satisfaction from a new object or phenomenon for himself. Scientists have identified 5 such phases: oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital.

From birth, the baby's libido is directed to the mother's breast, he gets pleasure from sucking milk. Freud called this stage of psychosexual development oral. Then the child begins to walk, he is taught to the potty. When everything starts to work out for him, his mother praises him, and the baby is happy. This is the anal stage of development. When a child begins to communicate more with other children of both sexes, to compare himself with them, the phallic phase of development begins. At this time, the baby also tries to explore his body as best as possible. Then interest in sexuality fades a little, a latent phase of development begins. And with puberty comes the genital phase.

Freud's theory of the stages of psychosexual development was cutting edge for its time. However, now it has been adopted not only by psychologists, but also by sexologists, and even andrologists and sexopathologists.

Freud's theory of motivation

Interestingly, the concept of motivation in psychology is based precisely on the idea of ​​Sigmund Freud about this phenomenon. It was this scientist who was one of the first to reject the Christian vision of morality, kindness and mercy as the driving forces of human behavior. He named three main motives that are significant for any representative of the human race: sensuality, anxiety and aggression. It is they who "live" inside the "Id".

As we already know, according to the ideas of psychoanalysts, the inner reality of a person is in a state of constant conflict between the "Id" and the "Super-Ego", and the "Ego" acts as an arbiter of this fight. That is why the motives of a person's behavior are often very contradictory. Sometimes the “Super-Ego” prevails - and a person commits highly moral acts, and from time to time the “Ego” is unable to restrain the “Id”, and then secret dark desires that used to be hidden deep in the unconscious break out.

The Significance of Dr. Freud's Theories for Psychological Science

So bold and interesting were the main theories of Freud, proposed by him at the beginning of the last century. However, they do not lose their relevance to this day.

It was thanks to Dr. Freud that researchers of the human soul finally began to pay due attention to the experiences that a person experienced in childhood. It is thanks to Freud that today we know about the existence of the unconscious and understand how significant it is for our psychology. And it was thanks to this scientist that we discovered the mechanisms of psychological defenses that help us cope with the difficulties of everyday life.

However, even now psychoanalysis is constantly criticized by psychologists themselves and by people who have nothing to do with this science. Both the doctrine itself and the personality of its founder are affected. However, no matter how ambiguous Freud's theory may seem, psychology without it would hardly be psychology.

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Psychoanalysis is a term introduced into psychological use by Z. Freud. It is a teaching that focuses attention on the unconscious processes of the psyche and motivation. This is a psychotherapeutic method based on the analysis of the implicit, repressed experiences of the individual. In human psychoanalysis, the fundamental source of neurotic manifestations and various pathological diseases is considered to be the pushing out of consciousness of unacceptable aspirations and traumatic experiences.

The psychoanalytic method prefers to consider human nature from the position of confrontation: the functioning of the personality psyche reflects the struggle of diametrically opposed tendencies.

Psychoanalysis in psychology

Psychoanalysis reflects how unconscious confrontation affects the self-esteem of the individual and the emotional side of the personality, its interactions with the rest of the environment and other social institutions. The root cause of the conflict lies in the very circumstances of the individual's experience. After all, man is both a biological creation and a social being. According to its own biological desires, it is aimed at seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.

Psychoanalysis is a concept introduced by Z. Freud in order to designate a new methodology for the study and treatment of mental disorders. The principles of psychology are many-sided and broad, and one of the most famous methods of studying the psyche in psychological science is psychoanalysis.

Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis consists of the conscious, preconscious part and the unconscious.

In the preconscious part, many fantasies of the individual and his desires are stored. Desires can be redirected into the conscious part if enough attention is focused on it. A phenomenon that is difficult for an individual to realize, due to the fact that it contradicts his moral principles, or seems too painful for him, is located in the unconscious part. Actually this part is separated from the other two by censorship. Therefore, it is important to always remember that the subject of careful study of psychoanalytic technique is the relationship between the conscious part and the unconscious.

Psychological science refers to the deep mechanisms of psychoanalysis: analysis of the causeless actions of the symptomatic structure that occur in everyday life, analysis with the help of free associations, interpretation of dreams.

With the help of psychological teachings, people discover answers to questions that disturb their souls, and psychoanalysis only pushes them to find an answer, often one-sided, private. Psychologists mainly work with the motivational sphere of clients, their emotions, relationship to the surrounding reality, sensory images. Psychoanalysts concentrate mainly on the essence of the individual, on his unconscious. Along with this, both psychological practice and psychoanalytic methodology have something in common.

Sigmund Freud psychoanalysis

The main regulatory mechanism of human behavior is consciousness. Z. Freud discovered that behind the veil of consciousness there is a deep, “raging” layer of powerful aspirations, aspirations, desires that are not realized by the individual. As a practicing physician, Freud faced the serious problem of the complication of being due to the presence of unconscious worries and motives. Often this "unconscious" becomes the cause of neuropsychiatric disorders. This discovery directed him to search for tools to help patients get rid of the confrontation between "pronounceable" consciousness and hidden, unconscious motives. Thus, Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis was born - a method of healing the soul.

Not limited to the study and treatment of neuropaths, as a result of hard work to recreate their mental health, Z. Freud formed a theory that interpreted the experiences and behavioral reactions of sick individuals and healthy individuals.

Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is known as classical psychoanalysis. It has gained immense popularity in the West.

The concept of "psychoanalysis" can be represented in three meanings: psychopathology and personality theory, a method for studying the unconscious thoughts of an individual and his feelings, a method for treating personality disorders.

Freud's classical psychoanalysis demonstrated absolutely new system in psychology, which is often referred to as the psychoanalytic revolution.

Sigmund Freud philosophy of psychoanalysis: he argued that the hypothesis of unconscious processes of the psyche, the recognition of the doctrine of resistance and repression, the Oedipus complex and sexual development form the fundamental elements of psychoanalytic theory. In other words, no physician can be considered a psychoanalyst without agreeing with the enumerated basic premises of psychoanalysis.

Freud's psychoanalysis is the basis for comprehending many processes in the social mind, mass behavior, preferences of individuals in the field of politics, culture, etc. From the standpoint of psychoanalytic teaching, the modern subject lives in a world of intense mental motives, embraced by repressed aspirations and inclinations, which leads him to television screens, serial films and other forms of culture that give a sublimation effect.

Freud identified two fundamental antagonistic driving forces, namely "thanatos" and "eros" (for example, life and death). All the processes of a destructive nature in the subject and society are based on such oppositely directed motives - "aspiration for life" and "thirst for death". Freud considered Eros in a broad sense as a striving for life and gave this concept a central place.

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis gave science an understanding of such an important phenomenon of the personality psyche as "libido" or, in other words, sexual desire. Freud's central idea was the idea of ​​unconscious sexual behavior, which is the basis of the behavior of the subject. Behind most of the manifestations of fantasies and creativity, sexual problems are mainly hidden. Any creativity was considered by Freud as a symbolic fulfillment of unfulfilled desires. However, this concept of Freud should not be exaggerated. He proposed to consider that behind each image an intimate background is necessarily hidden, but in principle it is undeniable.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud is often referred to as the concept of the unconscious psyche. The core of the psychoanalytic teaching is the study of the active affective complex that is formed as a result of repressed traumatic experiences from consciousness. The strength of this theory has always been considered that it managed to focus on the unthinkable complexity of the affective side of the individual, on the problem of clearly experienced and hidden drives, on conflicts that arise between various motives, on the tragic confrontation between the sphere of "desired" and "should". Neglect of unconscious, but real mental processes, as a determinant of behavior, in the field of education inevitably leads to a deep distortion of the entire image of the subject's inner life, which in turn creates an obstacle to the formation of deeper knowledge about the nature and tools of spiritual creativity, norms of behavior, personal structure and activity.

Psychoanalytic teaching, by focusing attention, also represents the processes of an unconscious nature and is a technique that forces the unconscious to be explained by the language of consciousness, brings it to the surface in order to search for the cause of the suffering of the individual, internal confrontation to cope with it.

Freud discovered the so-called "mental underground", when an individual notices the best, praises it, but strives for the bad. The problem of the unconscious is acute in individual psychology, social life and social relationships. As a result of the influence of certain factors, a misunderstanding of the surrounding conditions and one's own "I" appears, which contributes to a sharp pathologisation of social behavior.

In a general sense, psychoanalytic theory is considered not only scientific concept, but philosophy, therapeutic practice associated with the healing of the psyche of individuals. It is not limited only to experimental scientific knowledge and consistently approaches humanistically oriented theories. However, many scholars considered psychoanalytic theory a myth.

So, for example, Erich Fromm considered psychoanalysis limited due to its biologization determination of personal development and considered the role of sociological factors, political, economic, religious and cultural reasons in personal formation.

Freud developed a radical theory in which he argued for the prevailing role of repression and the fundamental importance of the unconscious. Human nature has always believed in reason as the apogee of human experience. Z. Freud delivered humanity from this delusion. He forced the scientific community to doubt the inviolability of the rational. Why you can rely on the mind completely. Does it always bring consolation and release from torment? And is the torment less grandiose in terms of the level of impact on the individual than the ability of the mind?

Z. Freud substantiated that a significant proportion of rational thinking only masks real judgments and feelings, in other words, serves to hide the truth. Therefore, for the treatment of neurotic states, Freud began to use the method of free association, which consisted in the fact that patients in a relaxed state say everything that comes to their mind, whether such thoughts are absurd or of an unpleasant, obscene nature. Powerful impulses of an emotional nature carry away uncontrolled thinking in the direction of psychic conflict. Freud argued that a random first thought is a forgotten continuation of a memory. However, later, he made a reservation that this is not always the case. Sometimes the thought that arises in the patient is not identical to the forgotten ideas, due to the mental state of the patient.

Also, Freud claimed that with the help of dreams, the presence in the depths of the brain of an intense mental life is revealed. And the direct analysis of a dream involves the search for hidden content in it, a deformed unconscious truth that is hidden in every dream. And the more confusing the dream, the greater the significance of the hidden content for the subject. Such a phenomenon is called resistances in the language of psychoanalysis, and they are expressed even when the individual who has had a dream does not want to interpret the nocturnal images that inhabit his mind. With the help of resistances, the unconscious defines barriers to protect itself. Dreams express hidden desires through symbols. Hidden thoughts, being transformed into symbols, are made acceptable to consciousness, as a result of which it becomes possible for them to overcome censorship.

Anxiety was considered by Freud as a synonym for an affective state of the psyche - which was given a special section in the introduction to psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud. In general, the psychoanalytic concept distinguishes three forms of anxiety, namely, realistic, neurotic and moral. All three forms are aimed at warning about a threat or danger, developing a behavioral strategy, or adapting to threatening circumstances. In situations of internal confrontation, the “I” forms psychological defenses, which are special types of unconscious activity of the psyche that allow at least temporarily alleviating confrontation, relieving tension, getting rid of anxiety by distorting the actual situation, modifying attitudes towards threatening circumstances, substituting the perception of reality under certain living conditions.

Theory of psychoanalysis

The concept of psychoanalysis is based on the concept that human behavior is largely unconscious and not apparent. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Z. Freud developed a new structural model of the psyche, which made it possible to consider internal confrontation in a different aspect. In this structure, he singled out three components, called: "it", "I" and "super-I". The pole of the individual's drives is called "it". All processes in it occur unconsciously. From "IT" is born and formed in interaction with the environment and the environment
"I", which is a complex set of identifications with other "I". In the conscious surface, the preconscious and unconscious planes, the "I" functions and performs psychological protection.

All protective mechanisms are initially intended for the adaptation of subjects to the requirements of the external environment and internal reality. But due to developmental disorders of the psyche, such natural and common methods of adaptation within the boundaries of the family can themselves become the cause of serious problems. Any defense, along with the weakening of the impact of reality, also distorts it. In the case when such curvature is too massive, adaptive methods of protection are transformed into a psychopathological phenomenon.

"I" is considered the middle area, the territory on which two realities intersect and overlap one another. One of its most important functions is reality testing. “I” invariably encountering difficult and dual requirements that come from “IT”, the external environment and the “super-I”, “I” is forced to find compromises.

Any psychopathological phenomenon is a compromise solution, an unsuccessful desire for self-healing of the psyche, which has arisen as a response to pain sensations generated by intrapsychic confrontation. "SUPER-I" is a pantry of moral prescriptions and ideals, it implements several significant functions in mental regulation, namely control and self-observation, encouragement and punishment.

E. Fromm developed humanistic psychoanalysis in order to expand the boundaries of psychoanalytic teaching and emphasize the role of economic, sociological and political factors, religious and anthropological circumstances in personal formation.

Fromm's psychoanalysis briefly: he began his interpretation of personality with an analysis of the circumstances of an individual's life and their modification, from the Middle Ages to the twentieth century. The humanistic psychoanalytic concept was developed to resolve the basic contradictions of human existence: egoism and altruism, possession and life, negative "freedom from" and positive "freedom for".

Erich Fromm argued that the way out of the crisis stage of modern civilization lies in the creation of the so-called "healthy society", based on the beliefs and guidelines of humanistic morality, the restoration of harmony between nature and the subject, personality and society.

Erich Fromm is considered the founder of neo-Freudianism, a trend that has become widespread mainly in the United States. Neo-Freudians combined Freudian psychoanalysis with American sociological teachings. Horney's psychoanalysis can be singled out among the most famous works on neo-Freudianism. The followers of neo-Freudianism sharply criticized the chain of postulates of classical psychoanalysis regarding the interpretation of the processes occurring inside the psyche, but at the same time preserved the most important components of its theory (the concept of the irrational motivation of the subjects' activities).

Neo-Freudians emphasized the study of interpersonal relationships in order to find answers to questions about the existence of a person, about the proper way of life for a person and what she needs to do.

Horney's psychoanalysis consists in the presence of three fundamental behavioral strategies that an individual can use to resolve a basic conflict. Each strategy corresponds to a certain basic orientation in relations with other subjects:

The strategy of movement towards society or orientation towards individuals (corresponding to a compliant personality type);

Strategy of movement against society or orientation against subjects (corresponds to a hostile or aggressive personality type);

The strategy of moving away from society or orientation from individuals (corresponds to a detached or isolated personality type).

The style of interaction focused on individuals is characterized by bondage, uncertainty and helplessness. Such people are driven by the belief that if the individual backs down, he will not be touched.

The compliant type needs love, protection, and guidance. He usually enters into relationships to avoid feelings of loneliness, worthlessness or helplessness. Behind their courtesy may be a repressed need for aggressive behavior.

With a style of behavior oriented against subjects, dominance and exploitation are characteristic. A person acts on the basis of the belief that she has power, so no one will touch her.

The hostile type adheres to the point of view that society is aggressive, and life is a struggle against everyone. Hence, the hostile type considers each situation or any relationship from the position that he will have from it.

Karen Horney argued that this type is able to behave correctly and friendly, but at the same time, in the end, his behavior is always aimed at gaining power over the environment. All his actions are aimed at increasing his own status, authority or satisfying personal ambitions. Thus, this strategy reveals the need to exploit the environment, to receive social recognition and delight.

The detached type uses a protective attitude - "I don't care" and is guided by the principle that if he steps back, he will not suffer. For this type, the following rule is characteristic: under no circumstances should you be carried away. And it doesn't matter what it's about - or about love relationships or about work. As a result, they lose their true interest in the environment, become akin to superficial pleasures. This strategy is characterized by the desire for solitude, independence and self-sufficiency.

Introducing such a division of behavioral strategies, Horney noted that the concept of "types" is used in the concept for a simplified designation of individuals characterized by the presence of certain character traits.

Psychoanalytic direction

The most powerful and diverse current in modern psychology is the psychoanalytic direction, the founder of which is Freud's psychoanalysis. The most famous works in the psychoanalytic direction are Adler's individual psychoanalysis and Jung's analytical psychoanalysis.

Alfred Adler and Carl Jung in their writings supported the theory of the unconscious, but sought to limit the role of intimate urges in the interpretation human psyche. As a result, the unconscious acquired a new content. The content of the unconscious, according to A. Adler, was the desire for power as a tool that compensates for the feeling of inferiority.

Jung's psychoanalysis briefly: G. Jung rooted the concept of "collective unconscious". He considered the unconscious psyche saturated with structures that cannot be acquired individually, but are a gift from distant ancestors, while Freud believed that the unconscious psyche of the subject may include phenomena that were previously repressed from consciousness.

Jung further develops the concept of the two poles of the unconscious - the collective and the personal. The surface layer of the psyche, covering all contents that are related to personal experience, namely forgotten memories, repressed urges and desires, forgotten traumatic impressions, Jung called the personal unconscious. It depends on the personal history of the subject and can awaken in fantasies and dreams. He called the collective unconscious a supra-personal unconscious psyche, including drives, instincts, which in a person represent a natural creature, and archetypes in which the human soul is found. The collective unconscious contains national and racial beliefs, myths and prejudices, as well as a certain heritage that has been acquired from animals by people. Instincts and archetypes play the role of a regulator of the inner life of the individual. The instinct determines the specific behavior of the subject, and the archetype determines the specific formation of the conscious contents of the psyche.

Jung identified two human types: extroverted and introverted. The first type is characterized by an outward orientation and a focus on social activity, and the second type is characterized by an internal orientation and focus on personal drives. Subsequently, Jung called such drives of the subject the term "libido" as well as Freud, but at the same time Jung did not identify the concept of "libido" with the sexual instinct.

Thus, Jung's psychoanalysis is an addition to classical psychoanalysis. Jung's philosophy of psychoanalysis had a rather serious influence on the further development of psychology and psychotherapy, along with anthropology, ethnography, philosophy and esotericism.

Adler, transforming the initial postulate of psychoanalysis, singled out the feeling of inferiority, caused, in particular, by physical defects, as a factor in personal development. As a response to such feelings, there is a desire to compensate for it, in order to gain superiority over others. The source of neuroses, in his opinion, is hidden in an inferiority complex. He fundamentally disagreed with the statements of Jung and Freud about the prevalence of personal unconscious instincts in human behavior and his personality, which oppose the individual to society and alienate him from it.

Adler's psychoanalysis briefly: Adler argued that the sense of community with society, stimulating social relationships and orientation to other subjects, is the main force that determines human behavior and determines the life of the individual, and not at all innate archetypes or instincts.

However, there is something in common that connects the three concepts of Adler's individual psychoanalysis, Jung's analytical psychoanalytic theory and Freud's classical psychoanalysis - all of these concepts claimed that the individual has some inner, unique nature that affects personality formation. Only Freud gave a decisive role to sexual motives, Adler noted the role of social interests, and Jung attached decisive importance to primary types of thinking.

Another staunch follower of Freud's psychoanalytic theory was E. Berne. In the course of further development of the ideas of classical psychoanalysis and the development of methods for the treatment of neuropsychiatric ailments, Berne focused on the so-called "transactions" that form the foundation of interpersonal relationships. Psychoanalysis Bern: he considered three states of "ego", namely the child, adult and parent. Berne suggested that in the process of any interaction with the environment, the subject is always in one of the listed states.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis Berne - this work was created to explain the dynamics of the psyche of the individual and analyze the problems experienced by patients. Unlike fellow psychoanalysts, Berne considered it important to bring the analysis of personality problems to the life history of her parents and other ancestors.

Berne's introduction to psychoanalysis is devoted to the analysis of the varieties of "games" used by individuals in daily communication.

Methods of psychoanalysis

The psychoanalytic concept has its own techniques of psychoanalysis, which include several stages: the production of material, the stage of analysis and the working alliance. The main methods of material production include free association, transfer reaction and resistance.

The method of free association is a diagnostic, research and therapeutic method of classical Freudian psychoanalysis. It is based on the use of associativity of thinking to comprehend deep mental processes (mainly unconscious) and the further application of the data obtained in order to correct and cure functional mental disorders through clients' awareness of the sources of their problems, causes and nature. A feature of this method is the jointly directed, meaningful and purposeful struggle of the patient and the therapist against the sensations of mental discomfort or illness.

The method consists in uttering by the patient any thoughts that come into his head, even if such thoughts are absurd or obscene. The effectiveness of the method depends, for the most part, on the relationship that has arisen between the patient and the therapist. The basis of such relationships is the phenomenon of transference, which consists in the subconscious transfer by the patient to the therapist of the properties of the parents. In other words, the client transfers onto the therapist the feelings he has for surrounding subjects in the early age period, in other words, he projects early childhood desires and relationships onto another person.

The process of comprehending cause-and-effect relationships in the course of psychotherapy, the constructive transformation of personal attitudes and beliefs, as well as the renunciation of old and the formation of new types of behavior are accompanied by certain difficulties, resistance, opposition of the client. Resistance is a recognized clinical phenomenon that accompanies any form of psychotherapy. It means the desire not to touch upon the unconscious conflict, as a result of which any attempt to identify the true sources of personality problems is created.

Freud considered resistance to be the resistance, unconsciously rendered by the client, to attempts to recreate the "repressed complex" in his mind.

The analysis phase contains four steps (confrontation, interpretation, clarification, and working through), which do not necessarily follow each other in sequence.

Another important psychotherapeutic step is the working alliance, which is a relatively healthy, sensible relationship between patient and therapist. It enables the client to work purposefully in the analytic situation.

The method of interpreting dreams is to look for the hidden content, the deformed unconscious truth that lies behind every dream.

Modern psychoanalysis

Modern psychoanalysis has grown up in the field of Freud's concepts. It is a constantly evolving theories and methods designed to open up the innermost sides of human nature.

For more than a hundred years of its existence, psychoanalytic teaching has undergone many cardinal changes. On the basis of Freud's monotheistic theory, a complex system was formed that covers a variety of practical approaches and scientific points of view.

Modern psychoanalysis is a complex of approaches connected by a common subject of analysis. The unconscious aspects of the mental existence of subjects serve as such an object. The general goal of psychoanalytic writings is to free individuals from the various unconscious limits that give rise to torment and block progressive development. Initially, the development of psychoanalysis proceeded exclusively as a method of healing neuroses and teaching about unconscious processes.

Modern psychoanalysis identifies three interrelated areas, namely the psychoanalytic concept, which forms the basis for a variety of practical approaches, applied psychoanalysis, aimed at studying cultural phenomena and solving social problems, and clinical psychoanalysis, aimed at providing psychological and psychotherapeutic assistance in cases of personal difficulties. or neuropsychiatric disorders.

If at the time of Freud's work the concept of drives and the theory of infantile sexual desire were especially widespread, today the undisputed leader in the field of psychoanalytic ideas is ego psychology and the concept of object relations. Along with this, the techniques of psychoanalysis are constantly being transformed.

Modern psychoanalytic practice has already gone far beyond the treatment of neurotic conditions. Despite the fact that the symptomatology of neuroses, as before, is considered an indication for the use of the classical technique of psychoanalysis, modern psychoanalytic teaching finds adequate ways to help individuals with a variety of problems, ranging from ordinary psychological difficulties to severe mental disorders.

The most popular branches of modern psychoanalytic theory are structural psychoanalysis and neo-Freudianism.

Structural psychoanalysis is a direction of modern psychoanalysis based on the meaning of language for assessing the unconscious, characterizing the subconscious and for the purpose of treating neuropsychiatric diseases.

Neo-Freudianism is also called the direction in modern psychoanalytic theory, which arose on the foundation of the implementation of Freud's postulates about the unconscious emotional motivation of the subjects' activities. Also, all the followers of neo-Freudianism were united by the desire to rethink Freud's theory in the direction of its greater sociologization. For example, Adler and Jung rejected Freud's biologism, instinctivism and sexual determinism, and also attached less importance to the unconscious.

The development of psychoanalysis thus led to the emergence of numerous modifications that changed the content of the key concepts of Freud's concept. However, all followers of psychoanalysis are bound by the recognition of the judgment of "conscious and unconscious."

Doctor of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"

Even if a person has nothing to do with psychology, he knows the name of one psychologist for sure. This is Sigmund Freud - the founder of psychoanalysis - a direction in psychology, which everyone has also heard of.

Freud's psychoanalytic theories are known far beyond psychology, they had a strong influence on the art, literature, sociology and culture of the 20th century as a whole. However, as my teaching experience shows, 90% of students, when asked about the essence of psychoanalysis, could remember only two concepts: “sexual instinct” and “sublimation”. Moreover, what the second word means was represented rather vaguely.

Therefore, I think it is worth getting acquainted with this direction in psychology in more detail.

Currently, psychoanalysis exists as 3 interrelated, but relatively independent areas.

1. Psychological and Philosophical Theory.
2. A set of principles and methods for studying unconscious mental processes and phenomena.
3. A direction in psychotherapy, the purpose of which is to help overcome phobias and complexes.

The founder of psychoanalysis as a philosophical and psychological doctrine is the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Therefore, the philosophical part of his teaching is also called Freudianism.

This doctrine was born at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and immediately found support in wide scientific circles. As it turned out, Freud's ideas helped to find answers to many complex questions not only in psychology and psychiatry, but also in other human sciences - anthropology, sociology, cultural studies. True, there were no less critics of Freud's theory than his enthusiastic followers. Including because this Viennese psychiatrist associated too many human problems with unsatisfied sexual ones.

Modern psychoanalysis is much broader than the original theories of its founder. Already the closest students and associates of Freud (K. Jung, K. Horney, A. Adler, E. Fromm, etc.) introduced a lot of new things into the teachings of their predecessor.

Unsatisfied desires and the phenomenon of sublimation

Studying the behavior of people with a variety of mental problems (psychosis, phobias,), Z. Freud came to the conclusion that the cause of these problems is unsatisfied needs that are contrary to the norms of society. It was mainly about sexual needs and instincts, which, under the pressure of social morality, the individual drives into the depths of consciousness. But they do not disappear and can affect a person's behavior, cause a state and unmotivated, or, conversely,.

The need to remove the internal conflict between the desired and the forbidden leads to what Freud called sublimation. This is the transformation, change and transfer of unrealized energy of desires to other areas of life and. Thus, unsatisfied sexual needs (libido) can be sublimated into creativity, politics, or social aggression. A good example is single women who are passionate about social activities or aspiring to a career in politics.

By the way, in modern psychoanalysis we are talking not only about sexual desires, although they are the most revealing. For example, an unsatisfied desire for power can manifest itself in domestic violence, and an unfulfilled need for sincere, friendly communication is sublimated into a passion for cats and other pets.

The presence of unsatisfied, suppressed needs in a person can be seen in uncontrolled behavioral acts: reservations, typos, impulsive movements, expressive reactions and, of course, in dreams. Freud paid special attention to the study of the images of our dreams, which carry information about the unconscious.

Three levels of the psyche

Features of mental processes and human behavior from the point of view of the founder of psychoanalysis are associated with the structure of the psyche, which consists of three levels.

• Ego - "I" - this is the middle level, in fact, the consciousness that controls human behavior. This level contains ideas, experience, knowledge, beliefs that are formed under the influence of society.
• Id - "It" - the lower level, the unconscious, where forbidden desires, biological needs and displaced from consciousness are stored. At this level, unconscious processes take place that a person does not control.
• Super-Ego - "Super-I" - the highest level of the psyche, here are the restrictions of behavior, moral standards, prohibitions and taboos. It is, in fact, the conscience of man.

Therefore, our consciousness is constantly in a state of conflict and seeks to resolve the contradiction between the “It” that wants sensual pleasures and the “Super-I” that upholds moral standards. If the unconscious wins and a person succumbs to the temptation of forbidden desires, then he experiences feelings that can develop into neuroses, psychoses and other mental illnesses. The same danger threatens a person when, obeying the "Super-I", he restrains his desires and suffers from a state of frustration - a difficult emotional experience that occurs against the background of the inability to get what he wants.

The way out of this conflict is in sublimation - the transformation of the energy of drives and directing it to other types of activity: science, politics, raising children, etc. But if desires are held back for a long time and do not find a way out, then this leads to the formation of complexes.

The concept of "complex" in psychoanalysis

The concept of complexes is often associated with the theory of Z. Freud. Usually they talk about when it comes to a timid, indecisive person with an underestimated. But the doctrine of complexes has nothing to do with Freud himself. It appeared in psychoanalysis thanks to A. Adler, one of the followers of the famous Austrian psychiatrist.

A complex is understood as a set of human experiences associated with an unresolved conflict between one's own desires and the pressure of society. An inferiority complex is formed as a feeling of one's inferiority, impotence, inability to achieve what one wants. Moreover, a person observes the success of others, or at least their subjective experience of success. Therefore, it begins to seem to him that he is worse than those around him. This feeling can lead to the development of depression or even suicidal tendencies.

In order to relieve internal emotional stress and get rid of negative experiences at least for a while, people burdened with an inferiority complex often show increased aggressiveness, begin to abuse alcohol or drugs. Also, one of the ways to compensate for an inferiority complex is acceptance by a person, since the position of the offended is perceived as more acceptable than the position of a useless loser. In addition, the pity of others somehow makes up for the lack of self-respect in the mind.

Inferiority complex, although the most famous, but not the only one. There is, for example, a complex associated with it

It manifests itself in the fact that the individual does not simply compensate for the feeling of inferiority by demonstrating strength and aggression, but makes this the basis of his behavior. By the way, often such a complex is observed in adolescents.

In the works of A. Adler and his followers there is mention of other complexes.

• Oedipus complex, named after the ancient Greek king Oedipus, who married his mother after killing his father. This complex is manifested in the unconscious sexual attraction of sons to their mother.
• The Electra complex is the female version of the Oedipus complex, associated with the relationship of the daughter to the father.
• The Phaedra complex is an excessive, unbridled love of a mother for her son and his overprotection.
• The Polycrates complex is manifested in the excessive anxiety of a successful person who is afraid of his too rapid success.
• The Jonah complex is self-doubt, self-doubt and the ability to achieve success. A person who has these problems even refuses to recognize his achievements that are obvious to others.

Currently, the list of complexes has expanded significantly. In the psychological literature, there are such concepts as “guilt complex”, “excellent student complex”, “appearance complex”, etc. All of them are somehow connected with an incorrect assessment of one’s own role in society and the attitude of others around them.

Defense mechanisms

An important place in the theory of Z. Freud is played by the doctrine of. When a person unconsciously tries to overcome the conflict between the "It" and the Superego, between instincts and normative behavior prescribed by society, then these attempts can take different forms. One of them is sublimation, but it does not always happen. The process of conflict resolution is often painful, brings negative emotions to the individual, and he also unconsciously defends himself from them. Freud described various ways or mechanisms of psychological defense:

• Repression of desires. When neither the satisfaction of desires nor getting rid of them is possible, they are forced out to the level of the unconscious. Desires do not disappear and continue to have a hidden influence on human behavior. To contain them, the forces of the body are spent, which reacts painfully to this, in the literal sense of the word. The consequences of repression can be not only neuroses, but also cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, etc.
• Negation. One of the common mechanisms, when getting rid of negative experiences caused by some events, occurs through their denial: “nothing happened”, “it just seemed to me”, etc.
• Rationalization. Committing unseemly acts condemned by society and his own conscience, a person tries to explain this with rational reasons, the impossibility of doing otherwise. Explanations may look logical, but the true reason for the act is different, and it is often not realized by the person.
• . Transferring one's immoral desires and bad thoughts to other people, that is, endowing them with their own negative qualities. A cowardly person likes to blame others for indecision, a drinker likes to stigmatize familiar drunkards, and an irresponsible person complains about the negligence of colleagues.
• Substitution. Redirection of aggressive behavior from a stronger object (it's too dangerous to bully and quarrel with him, but I really want to) to a weaker one. So, in irritation with the boss, a man can take out his anger on his wife.
• Inversion. Replacing an unsatisfied desire with the exact opposite. For example, not having achieved love, a person begins to look for something to hate the object of his love. (“It didn’t hurt, and I wanted to”).
• Regression. If rational, "adult" behavior does not provide the desired, then the person replaces it with a more primitive, "childish" one. Forms of such regression in psychoanalysis are considered not only the desire to complain to everyone, but also alcoholism, smoking, “jamming” of troubles, etc.

Defense mechanisms are inherent in all people. And these are normal, natural reactions, unless a person abuses them. Then they begin to dominate the behavior, which negatively affects it.

Applied aspect of psychoanalysis

The ideas of Z. Freud became the basis of a whole trend in psychology. And it includes not only theory, but also practice. And at present, psychoanalysis is more understood precisely as a set of methods of psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy, combined in general concept"psychoanalytic session".

Psychoanalysis as a diagnosis of the mental state of a person

The goal of the psychoanalyst is to identify the causes of human behavior and experiences hidden in the unconscious, to overcome internal conflicts that are the source of frustrations, phobias, neuroses, etc.

The first task that is solved in the process of psychoanalysis is the search for the causes of psychological problems. And since they are stored deep at the subconscious level and are often hidden under a layer of complexes and psychological defenses, it is not easy to get to them. In psychoanalysis, a number of methods have been developed to “pull out” memories, desires and instincts driven there from the subconscious. All these techniques can be grouped into 3 groups:

• Interpretation methods. They are based on comprehension, analysis of what the patient says to the psychoanalyst. Most often they mean spontaneous speech, reservations, randomly thrown out phrases, speech errors etc. But that's not all. In fact, the psychoanalyst simply talks with a person about his past and present, about his plans and anxieties. But at the same time, it “pulls out” from the subconscious level everything that is hidden there, suppressed, but creates painful problems and gives rise to crises.
• Method of free associations. This is a more organized technique that uses special phrases, words, pictures. Associations that are born in a person in response to them are channels of access to the unconscious, to secret desires, hidden complexes, repressed memories.
• Dream interpretation. Z. Freud and his closest followers (K. Jung, E. Fromm, K. Horney and others) gave this method great importance and have written many works on the interpretation of dream images, on the archetypes of the unconscious that appear in dreams.

But at present, the latter method is not as popular and is used less frequently than the first two. Unless we are talking about obsessive, painful dreams.

The therapeutic component of psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy are different directions and different approaches to influencing the human psyche. However, psychoanalysis also has a therapeutic component.

The psychoanalyst does not put pressure on the individual, does not form stereotypes of “correct” behavior in him, does not offer ready-made solutions. It helps a person to speak out and to understand the causes of their own problems and internal conflicts. From the point of view of psychoanalysis, this is enough to feel relief, release from the pressure of the unconscious and, most importantly, to change your life for the better.

But during a psychoanalysis session, when a person speaks out and opens up, a number of other processes take place that have a strong psychotherapeutic effect on the client. The psychoanalyst not only allows a person to freely, without embarrassment, talk about his problems, but also directs this process in such a way that the long-hidden in the subconscious is revealed to the patient. And he comprehends the truth about himself. This is not always a pleasant truth, so consciousness resists, builds various psychological blocks, spending a lot of energy on this.

The task of the psychoanalyst is to gently overcome this resistance, to encourage a person to destroy psychological blocks on his own. A psychoanalysis session should be structured in such a way that a person not only gets the opportunity to see the roots of his problems, but also gains confidence in overcoming them. Therefore, under the guidance of a good, experienced psychoanalyst, significant positive changes occur in the human mind.

In Western Europe and in the USA, where this direction has been successfully developed for many decades, psychoanalysis sessions are very popular. And despite numerous critics, they bring clear benefits, because after them people feel an increase in emotional tone, self-confidence and readiness to solve their internal and external problems.

The content of the article

PSYCHOANALYSIS, psychological system proposed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Originating first as a method of treating neuroses, psychoanalysis gradually became the general theory of psychology. Discoveries based on the treatment of individual patients have led to a deeper understanding of the psychological components of religion, art, mythology, social organization, child development and pedagogy. Moreover, by revealing the influence of unconscious desires on physiology, psychoanalysis has made a significant contribution to understanding the nature of psychosomatic diseases ( cm. PSYCHOSOMATIC MEDICINE).

The source of conflict lies in the very conditions of human experience. Man is both a biological and a social being. In accordance with his biological inclinations, he seeks pleasure and avoids pain. This obvious observation is known as the "pleasure principle" characterizing a fundamental trend in human psychology. A state of mental excitement is maintained in the body, forcing it to function in such a way as to obtain the desired pleasure. The stimulus that prompts action is called drive.

In an infant, the impulses are powerful and categorical; the child wants to do what gives pleasure, take what he wants, and eliminate everything that hinders the achievement of the goal. Frustration, frustration, anger and conflict arise immediately, especially when the human environment tries to short years civilize and cultivate a new member of society. The child must accept the prohibitions, mores, ideals and taboos of the special world in which he was born. He must learn what is permitted and what is forbidden, what is approved and what is punished. The impulses of childhood yield to the pressures of the adult world reluctantly and, at best, incompletely. Although most of these early conflicts are "forgotten" (actually repressed), many of these impulses and the fears associated with them remain in the unconscious part of the psyche and continue to have a significant impact on a person's life. Numerous psychoanalytic observations have shown that childhood experiences of satisfaction and frustration play an important role in the formation of personality.

HISTORICAL ASPECT

Sigmund Freud.

Freud considered this complex to be the key to neurosis, meaning that the desires and fears of the Oedipal situation are the same as in the development of a neurosis. The process of symptom formation begins when unconscious childhood impulses threaten to break through the barrier set up by repression and enter consciousness for realization, which turns out to be unacceptable to other parts of the psyche, both for moral reasons and for fear of punishment. The release of forbidden impulses is perceived as dangerous, the psyche reacts to them with unpleasant symptoms of anxiety. The psyche can protect itself from this danger by again and again expelling unwanted impulses from consciousness, i.e. as if renewing the act of repression. If this fails or only partially succeeds, a compromise is reached. Some unconscious desires still reach consciousness in a weakened or distorted form, which is accompanied by such signs of self-punishment as pain, discomfort, or limitation of activity. obsessive thoughts, phobias and hysterical symptoms arise as a compromise between the conflicting forces of the psyche. Thus, according to Freud, neurotic symptoms have a meaning: in symbolic form, they reflect the unsuccessful attempts of the individual to resolve internal contradictions ( see also NEUROSIS).

Freud found that the principles that allow the interpretation of neurotic symptoms apply equally to other mental phenomena, both moral and psychological. Dreams, for example, represent the continuation of daily life in such an altered state of consciousness as sleep. By applying the psychoanalytic method of research, as well as the principle of conflict and the formation of a compromise, the visual impressions of a dream can be interpreted and translated into everyday language. During sleep, children's unconscious sexual desires try to express themselves in the form of a visual hallucinatory experience. This is opposed by internal "censorship", which weakens or distorts the manifestations of unconscious desires. When censorship fails, the impulses that break through are perceived as a threat and danger, and a person has a nightmare or nightmare - a sign of an unsuccessful defense against a threatening impulse.

Psychoanalytic theory also considers other phenomena that reveal the nature of the compromise between various conflicting tendencies in the psyche; it can be reservations, superstitions, certain religious rituals, forgetting names, losing objects, choosing clothes and furniture, choosing a profession, hobbies, and even certain character traits.

In 1923, Freud formulated a theory of the functioning of the psyche in terms of its structural organization. Mental functions have been grouped according to the role they play in conflict. Freud identified three main structures of the psyche - "It" (or "Id"), "I" (or "Ego"), and "Super-I" (or "Super-Ego"). "I" performs the function of orienting a person in the outside world and interacts between him and the outside world, acting as a limiter of drives, correlating their requirements with the corresponding requirements of conscience and reality. "It" includes the basic drives derived from sexual or aggressive impulses. "Super-I" is responsible for the "removal" of the unwanted. It is usually associated with conscience, which is the legacy of moral ideas acquired in early childhood and the product of the most important childhood identifications and aspirations of the individual. see also FREUD, SIGMUND.

followers of Freud.

After the First World War, psychoanalysis not only revolutionized the whole of psychiatry and psychotherapy, but also brought a lot of new things to the study of man and his motivational sphere. Such psychoanalytic concepts as "Freudian slips", "rationalization", "sublimation", "repression", "ambivalence" and "substitution" have even entered everyday language ( see also PSYCHOLOGY).

Some of Freud's early students, most notably Carl Jung (1875–1961) and Alfred Adler (1870–1937), used psychoanalysis as starting point to develop their own psychological concepts. Jung interpreted the nature of drives much differently than Freud. In addition to the personal conflicts of the individual, culturally determined and unconsciously transmitted symbolic representations of the main "themes" of human existence matter. According to his concept, at the center of individual experience there are constantly emerging mythological themes common to all mankind. At the basis of all struggling tendencies in the life of a person lie archetypal (primary) images that conflict with each other. Jung's idea of ​​transmitting unconscious fantasies through the collective unconscious seemed to Freud and his followers purely theoretical and even mystical ( cm. JUNG, CARL GUSTAV).

Alfred Adler believed that Freudian psychoanalysis underestimates the role of social factors, emphasizing the primacy of sexual drives. He associated the causes of individual conflicts with more superficially lying factors, especially with a feeling of inferiority and a sense of uncertainty about one's social status, physical abilities or sexual possibilities. Many of Adler's ideas contributed to the further development of the concepts of self-esteem and especially to the analysis of its violations in the so-called. narcissistic personality disorder ( cm. ADLER, ALFRED).

Otto Rank (1884-1939) was amazed by the discoveries that were made in the course of research on the negative consequences of the separation of a child from his mother. He developed Freud's hypothesis about the trauma of birth as a prototype of an anxious situation and proposed a system of psychotherapy based on overcoming the trauma of separation. Rank considered will to be the decisive factor in the relationship between patient and psychoanalyst, and his system of psychotherapy is known as will therapy ( cm. RANK, OTTO).

Further development of psychoanalysis.

The coming to power of the Nazis forced many European psychoanalysts to emigrate to the United States, where the center of psychoanalytic thought moved. During this period, the leading psychoanalysts were H. Hartman (1894-1970), E. Chris (1900-1957) and R. Levenshtein (1898-1976). In a number of joint publications, they formulated the main provisions of psychoanalysis as the foundation of general psychology. The development of Hartman's concept of the adaptive function of the "Ego" contributed to the formulation of fundamental working hypotheses about the nature of drives, the maturation and development of the mental apparatus. Freud's daughter, Anna Freud (1895–1982), who was involved in the psychoanalysis of children and long-term studies of child development, also contributed to these theories. She analyzed various means, with which the "Ego" defends itself against the threat of intrusion of unwanted unconscious impulses.

The main theme of contemporary psychoanalytic research is the significance of the attachment of the infant to the mother. Problems arising at this stage, primarily due to the coldness or indifference of the mother, can play a decisive role in the occurrence of severe personality disorders. Mother-child interaction appears to be critical for personality development and self-esteem.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

Psychoanalysis is based on several fundamental principles. The first of these is the principle of determinism. Psychoanalysis assumes that not a single event in mental life is a random, arbitrary, unrelated phenomenon. The thoughts, feelings, and impulses that become conscious are seen as events in a chain of cause-and-effect relationships determined by the individual's early childhood experiences. With the help of special research methods, mainly through free association and dream analysis, it is possible to reveal the connection between current mental experience and past events.

The second principle is called the topographic approach. Each mental element is evaluated according to the criterion of its accessibility to consciousness. The process of repression, in which certain mental elements are removed from consciousness, testifies to the constant efforts of that part of the psyche that does not allow them to be realized.

According to the dynamic principle, the psyche is driven to action by sexual and aggressive impulses, which are part of the common biological heritage. These drives are different from the instinctive behavior of animals. An instinct in animals is a stereotyped response, usually explicitly aimed at survival and evoked by special stimuli in special situations. In psychoanalysis, attraction is seen as a state of nervous excitement in response to stimuli that induce the psyche to action aimed at relieving stress.

The fourth principle has been called the genetic approach. Conflicts that characterize adults, personality traits, neurotic symptoms, and psychological structures in general can be traced back to critical events, desires, and fantasies of childhood. In contrast to earlier conceptions of determinism and topographical and dynamic approaches, the genetic approach is not a theory, but an empirical discovery that is constantly being confirmed in all psychoanalytic situations. Its essence can be expressed simply: no matter what paths are open to the individual, he cannot escape his childhood.

Although psychoanalytic theory does not deny the possible influence of hereditary biological factors, it emphasizes "critical events", especially the consequences of what happened in early childhood. Whatever a child experiences—illness, accident, loss, pleasure, abuse, seduction, abandonment—then it will somehow affect his natural abilities and personality structure.

The impact of each specific life situation depends on the stage of development of the individual. An infant's earliest psychological experience is global sensory exposure. In this phase, there is still no differentiation of the Self and the rest of the world, the baby does not understand where his body is, and where everything else is. The idea of ​​oneself as something independent develops in two or three years. Separate objects of the external world, such as a blanket or soft toy, can be perceived at one time as part of oneself, and at another time as part of the external world.

PSYCHOANALYTICAL THERAPY

Psychoanalytic therapy is both a research method and a treatment method. It is carried out under certain standard conditions, called the "psychoanalytic situation". The patient is asked to lie down on the couch, turn away from the therapist and tell him in detail and honestly about all the thoughts, images and feelings that come to mind. The psychoanalyst listens to the patient without criticizing or expressing his own opinions. According to the principle of mental determinism, each element of thinking or behavior is observed and evaluated in the context of what is being told. The personality of the psychoanalyst himself, his values ​​and judgments are completely excluded from the therapeutic interaction. This organization of the psychoanalytic situation creates conditions under which the patient's thoughts and images can emerge from very deep layers of the psyche. They arise as a result of the constant internal dynamic pressure of drives that give rise to unconscious fantasies (dreams, free associations, etc.). As a result, what was previously repressed is verbalized and can be learned. Since the psychoanalytic situation is not complicated by the influence of ordinary interpersonal relationships, the interaction of the three components of the psyche - I, Id and Super-I - is studied more objectively; this makes it possible to show the patient what exactly in his behavior is determined by unconscious desires, conflicts and fantasies, and what is determined by more mature ways of responding.

The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to replace stereotyped, automated ways of responding to anxiety and fears with objective reasonable judgment. The most important part of therapy is connected with the interpretation of the patient's reactions to the psychotherapist himself. During treatment, the patient's perception of the psychoanalyst and his demands often becomes inadequate and unrealistic. This phenomenon is known as "transfer" or "transfer." It represents the patient's unconscious recovery new version forgotten childhood memories and repressed unconscious fantasies. The patient transfers his unconscious childhood desires to the psychoanalyst. Transference is understood as a form of memory in which repetition in action replaces the recollection of the past and in which the reality of the present is misinterpreted in terms of a forgotten past. In this respect, transference is a repetition in miniature of a neurotic process.

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND CULTURE

Psychoanalysis has largely influenced the development of the entire Western civilization. Understanding that a person's behavior is influenced by factors that lie outside the sphere of his consciousness and are at best under partial control, added sanity in assessing both those around him and himself. History offers ample evidence of how unreliable the foundations of morality are, which restrain the primitive, vicious and criminal impulses lurking in the depths of the human psyche. On the other hand, psychoanalysis has shown that we are both more moral and more immoral than previously thought. This changed picture of human motivation and psychology has played an important role in changing social attitudes in the Western world, especially in relation to issues such as sexual mores, justice, and, moreover, all social and political institutions, considered as "areas of application" of human psychology.

Psychoanalytic principles are amply represented in myths, fairy tales, and folklore that directly reflect childhood fantasies of wish fulfillment, such as the child's fantasy of being abandoned by noble parents and raised by "fake" parents. In almost every culture, there is a myth about a child that was thrown into the field, where he was found by peasants or animals, or floated down the river, from where he was rescued by poor shepherds. This theme, so often brought to light in the psychoanalytic situation, begins to emerge when the child gradually moves away from his parents, usually because of the inability to satisfy oedipal desires. In such fantasies, true parents are denigrated in every possible way, and at the same time, by denying blood relations, the child gets the opportunity to escape from guilt about incestuous desires. In the future, repressed childhood desires are included in myths or associated with heroic historical figures and thus receive direct or indirect justification. Myths, like religious rituals, are of great educational value, as they help a person to learn the moral norms of the community from childhood. Through identification with the mythological hero, the individual can unconsciously satisfy the forbidden impulses of childhood, and at the same time, the ideal qualities of the mythological hero serve as a model for him to follow.

Religion, as a social institution, performs a similar function, responding to the need of society for each of its members to correlate their desires with more general goals. Psychoanalytic research has established that some of the mechanisms by which the individual tries to overcome unconscious antisocial, incestuous, parricide, cannibalistic, perverted or aggressive desires are reflected in all religious practice and religious rituals in both primitive and developed societies. Religious rituals can serve as a powerful tool for transforming the impulses of the "Id" and strengthening the identification of the "I" in accordance with the moral values ​​of society. The social structure is formed and maintained by erotic and narcissistic attraction to the figure of the ideal leader, who as a result serves as an object of mass transfer (transfer).

In literature and art, deeply repressed conflicts and secret fantasies, which were carefully obscured or not even mentioned in the works of past centuries, are now, thanks to psychoanalysis, expressed openly and met with understanding. The value of psychoanalysis was appreciated by artists and those who studied the humanities and social sciences, much earlier than representatives of fundamental science and philosophy. The theme of unconscious motivation and defensive distortion of drives is invariably present today in the work of literary critics and art historians, as well as in the writings of the biographical genre.

Psychoanalytic approaches have also influenced the social sciences. The discovery of the universality of the oedipal complex and incestuous taboos offered new insights into primitive kinship systems and the general nature of social organization. In field studies conducted by ethnographers knowledgeable psychoanalytic theories and methodology, a lot of facts have been collected related to sexual identification, role models, the dynamics of child rearing and character formation, the meaning of initiation ceremonies, the significance of rituals in animistic and religious cults. Psychoanalytic concepts and methods have also been successfully applied to the problems of social relations in technically advanced societies. The study of the mutual influence between conflicts characteristic of different phases of individual development and the experience of growing up in a particular culture has given rise to a new science - ethnopsychology. A similar study of the relationship between conflicts in the lives of gifted leaders and the national historical context gave birth to another discipline: historical psychology.

In addition, it has been possible to extrapolate some of the results of psychoanalytic research to areas such as the connections between people and the psychological mechanisms that lead to group interaction and cohesion. In particular, on the basis of these data, concepts of "group dynamics" were developed, which are widely used in the analysis of the functioning of small groups, various associations and national political movements.

Following psychiatry and psychology, the activities of social services were also influenced to a large extent by psychoanalytic principles, whose workers, in assessing the needs of the client and in their contacts with him, also began to take into account the dynamics of the conscious and the unconscious. In many cases, the distinction between social work and psychotherapy disappears. It is clear that problems such as the placement of children in families, adoption and rearing in a strange family, as well as many other issues related to children, must be approached in the light of psychoanalytic discoveries regarding the dynamics of psychological processes.

Literature:

Byrne E. Introduction to Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis for the Uninitiated. St. Petersburg, 1991
Laplange J., Pontalis J. Dictionary of psychoanalysis. M., 1996
Freud Z. Basic psychological theories in psychoanalysis.Essay on the history of psychoanalysis. St. Petersburg, 1998