Types of development. The specifics of the mental development of the child

Each age is characterized by special and unique relationships between the child and the world around him, which are realized in different forms his life, but above all - through leading activity characteristic of a particular age, and communication with other people.

60 II. Features of the development of a young child

2. Specificity mental development gj

child in early age

Leading is such an activity in which basic psychological changes occur in the child's personality, other types of activity arise and differentiate, individual mental processes are formed or restructured, preparing the child's transition to a new, higher stage of development. At the same time, the development of a child's leading activity cannot be complete in isolation from communication with the people around him, primarily adults, since it is through them that the universal, cultural experience is transmitted to the younger generation.

Therefore, when characterizing a particular age, one should first of all focus on the content of the leading activity and communication corresponding to it, as well as on the central lines of the child’s mental development determined by them. But before proceeding to their analysis, let us dwell on distinctive features mentality of a child at an early age, which are largely due to the special nature of his attitude to the surrounding reality, and are manifested in his behavior.

A feature of the behavior of a child at this age is his situation related, dependence on her. A kid of 1-2 years old is interested in everything that surrounds him, he reaches out to everything that is in his field of vision. As the German psychologist K. Levin figuratively said, a staircase beckons a child to go along it, a door or a box - so that he closes or opens them, a bell - to call him, a round ball - to roll him. Each thing is charged for him with an affective attraction or repulsion force that "provokes" him to action, directs him. L.S. Vygotsky pointed out that such a situation-related visual field reflects the uniqueness of the activity of the consciousness of an early age child.

The dominance of the visual situation determines many features of children's behavior in a variety of circumstances. This applies, for example, the child following the instructions of an adult. So, in the experiments of A.R. Toys were placed in front of Luria in front of a young child, the experimenter asked him to “take a fish”, which was either located farther than other objects, or was less bright than them. The child immediately fixed the named toy with his eyes, stretched

to her, but along the way he met another, and he took her, and not the one that the adult asked for. Thus, a directly stronger impression can slow down or interrupt an action initiated by the child. In the experiments of L.S. Slavina, who studied the child’s ability to distract from the situation, to say something other than what he sees in front of him, found that a two-year-old baby can easily repeat the phrases following an adult: “The chicken is coming”, “The dog is running”, but say: “Tanya is coming” in the case when Tanya is sitting on a chair in front of him, he cannot. In response to an adult's request to repeat after him words that did not correspond to the visual situation, all the children participating in the experiments said: "Tanya is sitting." Only towards the end of an early age does the child develop the ability to abstract from the situation, to say something other than what it really is.

The connection with the objective situation determines and content of communication child with an adult. The main reasons for communication are practical actions dedicated to a given place and time. This feature of the interaction of a child with an adult, as well as the practical, “businesslike” nature of its course, served as the basis for defining communication at this stage as situational business.

The situational nature of the behavior of a young child is due to the special structure of his consciousness, which is characterized by "unity between sensory and motor functions" one . Perception at this age is practically inseparable from action. Everything that the child sees, he strives to touch, turn in his hands, disassemble, assemble, etc. At this age, he still cannot engage in purely mental activity, plan it, consciously think about something. His thinking is in visual-effective form: acting with objects, the child in all the fullness accessible to him cognizes the world around him.

The peculiarity of sensorimotor unity at this age lies in a pronounced affective coloring of the child's perception of the surrounding world. The absence of emotions or their weak expression is one of the signs of trouble in development. Emotions of the baby are most often and most clearly manifested at the time of perception of objects.

1 Vygotsky L.S. Sobr. op. T. 4. M., 1984. S. 342.

62 N. Features of the development of a young child

3. Development substantive activity 53

It is known that a young child can be calmed down by showing him an interesting toy, and he will immediately be distracted from what he just so persistently strived for.

It is only towards the end of early childhood that the sensorimotor unity begins to "loose" due to the development of speech, which "breaks the situational connection of the child" 1 .

Summing up, we can say that the uniqueness of the attitude of a young child to reality consists in the unity of the emotional and effective relationship to the directly perceived to the surrounding world.

Results

The specificity of age is manifested in the nature of the leading activity and communication of the child with adults. At an early age, the leading activity is object-tool activity and situational business communication. Children of this age are characterized by situational and emotional perception of the world around them, an effective attitude towards it.

Questions and tasks

1. How is the situational nature of a young child manifested?

2. Give examples of the child's specific relationship to the world around him.

What is development? How is it characterized? What is the fundamental difference between development and any other changes in an object? As you know, an object can change, but not develop. Growth, for example, is a quantitative change in a given object, including a mental process. There are processes that fluctuate within the “less-more” range. These are processes of growth in the proper and true sense of the word. Growth occurs over time and is measured in terms of time. The main characteristic of growth is the process of quantitative changes without changes in the internal structure and composition of its individual elements, without significant changes in the structure of individual processes. For example, when measuring the physical growth of a child, we see a quantitative increase. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there are phenomena of growth in mental processes(growth of vocabulary without changing the functions of speech).

But behind these processes of quantitative growth, other phenomena and processes can occur. Then the growth processes become only symptoms, behind which are hidden significant changes in the system and structure of processes. During such periods, jumps in the growth line are observed, which indicate significant changes in the body itself. In such cases, when there are significant changes in the structure and properties of the phenomenon, we are dealing with development.

Development is characterized by qualitative changes, the appearance of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X. Werner, L. S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them are:

Differentiation, dismemberment of a previously single element;

The emergence of new aspects, new elements in development itself;

Rebuilding links between the sides of the object.

As psychological examples, one can mention the differentiation of the natural conditioned reflex to the position under the chest and the revival complex; the emergence of a sign function in infancy; change during childhood of the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness. Each of these processes corresponds to the listed development criteria.

As L. S. Vygotsky showed, there are many various types development. Therefore, it is important to correctly find the place that among them is occupied by the mental development of the child, that is, to determine the specifics of mental development among other developmental processes. L. S. Vygotsky distinguished between preformed and unpreformed types of development.

A preformed type is one in which, at the very beginning, both the stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass through and the final result that the phenomenon will achieve are set, fixed, and fixed. Here everything is given from the very beginning. An example is embryonic development. Despite the fact that embryogenesis has its own history (there is a tendency to reduce the underlying stages, the newest stage affects the previous stages), this does not change the type of development. In psychology, there has been an attempt to represent mental development on the principle of embryonic development. This is the concept of St. Hall. It is based on Haeckel's biogenetic law: ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. Mental development was considered by Art. Hall as a brief repetition of the stages of mental development of animals and ancestors of modern man.

The unpreformed type of development is the most common on our planet. It also includes the development of the galaxy, and the development of the Earth, and the process of biological evolution, and the development of society. The process of mental development of the child also belongs to this type of processes. The unpreformed path of development cannot be predetermined. Children of different eras develop differently and reach different levels of development. Child development is an unpreformed type of development, but it is completely special process, which is determined not from below, but from above by the form of practical and theoretical activity that exists at a given level of development of society. This is the nature of child development. Its final forms are not given, not given. Not a single process of development, except ontogenetic, is carried out according to a ready-made model. Human development follows the pattern that exists in society. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development is the process of interaction between real and ideal forms. The task of a child psychologist is to trace the logic of mastering ideal forms. The child does not immediately master the spiritual and material wealth of mankind. But outside the process of assimilation of ideal forms, development is generally impossible. Therefore, within the unpreformed type of development, the mental development of the child is a special process. The process of ontogenetic development is a process unlike anything else, an extremely peculiar process that takes place in the form of assimilation.

Marina Chervyakova
Features of the development of young children

At this time at children 3 periods are clearly visible development.

The first period is from a year to a year and a half.

A child who has begun to walk becomes much more independent than before; in that he is an explorer; he climbs everywhere. He fills himself with bumps, and he can not be kept. In the same age the child starts talking.

The second period is from one and a half to 2 years.

The kid improves in the skills acquired earlier, determines his place in the environment; you already clearly trace the manifestations of his character.

The third period is from 2 to 3 years.

This is the period of the most active mental child development.

Early age- the most important period in preschooler development. It was at this time that the baby's transition to new relationships with adults, peers, and the outside world takes place. Early age characterized by a high intensity of physical and mental development. The activity of the child increases, its purposefulness increases; his movements become more varied and coordinated.

By the age of three, there are significant changes in the nature and content of the child's activities, in relations with surrounding: adults and peers. The leading activity in this age- substantive and effective cooperation. Three year old able not only to take into account the properties of objects, but also to assimilate some generally accepted ideas about the varieties of these properties - sensory standards of shape, size, color, etc. They become samples, standards with which they are compared peculiarities perceived objects.

Visual-figurative becomes the predominant form of thinking. The child turns out able not only to unite objects by external similarity (shape, color, size), but also to assimilate generally accepted ideas about groups of objects (clothes, dishes, furniture). Such representations are based not on the allocation of common and essential features of objects, but on the unification of those that are part of a common situation or have a common purpose. Sharp children's curiosity increases. In that age there are significant changes in speech development: the vocabulary increases significantly, elementary types of judgments about the environment appear, which are expressed in a fairly extended statements.

On this age At this stage, the first elementary ideas about good and bad, behavioral skills, good feelings for adults and peers around them are actively formed. This happens most successfully in conditions of favorable pedagogical influence of the kindergarten and the family. The third year of a child's life is a transitional development. It's still Small child, which has much in common with the children of the previous stage and which requires especially careful and attentive attitude on the part of adults, but at the same time, qualitatively new opportunities appear for him in mastering skills, in forming ideas, in accumulating personal experience behavior and activities.

For children from two to three years, an active focus on performing actions without the help of an adult, the manifestation of elementary types of speech judgments about the environment, the formation of new forms of relationships, a gradual transition from single games and games next to the simplest forms of joint gaming activity are characteristic. In a group early age the educator reinforces the ability to politely address adults and children with a request, provide small services to others, play with peers, give toys, books, teaches the observance of elementary rules in didactic, mobile games: calmly listen to the drivers, patiently wait for their turn (if the wait is short). The guys are involved in preparing the table for breakfast, lunch, to carry out assignments for the care of plants and animals.

To implement these tasks, the educator uses imitation as a specific characteristic of children two to four years old. An adult shows by his own example a positive attitude to work, to people around him, to children.

children early age characterized by great emotional responsiveness, which allows you to successfully solve the problem of cultivating good feelings and relationships with other people. At the same time, it is very important that the teacher maintains a positive emotional condition: responsiveness to his proposal, request, a sense of empathy at the sight of the grief of another. The children are brought up with love for their loved ones, the desire to do something good for them. This is achieved with the approval, praise by adults of the child's manifestations of good feelings towards others.

Early age- a period of intensive development by the child of various types of activities and personal development. In child psychology and pedagogy, the following main areas are distinguished in child development at this age:

- development subject activity;

- development of communication with adults;

- speech development;

- game development;

Introduction to different types artistic and aesthetic activities;

- development communication with peers, physical personal development and development

This division is rather arbitrary, since development is a single process in which the selected areas intersect, interact and complement each other.

In the third year of life, the child continues to master the surrounding objective world. The actions of the baby with objects become more diverse and dexterous. He already knows how to do a lot himself, knows the names and purposes of household items, strives to help adults: wash the dishes, wipe the table, vacuum the floor, water the flowers. He increasingly consciously wants to act like an adult, he begins to be attracted not only by the process of performing an action, but also by its result. The child tries to get the same result as the adult. Thus, the child's attitude to his activity gradually is changing: the result becomes its regulator. In independent studies, games, the baby begins to be guided by the plan, the desire to achieve success in activities.

Mastery of objective activity stimulates development such personal qualities children as initiative, independence, purposefulness. The child becomes more and more persistent in achieving the goal.

In the third year of life, communication with peers begins to take an increasing place. This is due to the fact that by the age of three there is special, the specific content of communication children among themselves.

There is a noticeable change in communication: actions in relation to a peer as an inanimate object are on the wane, there is a desire to interest him in himself, sensitivity to the attitude of a peer. More and more kids are enjoying playing together. Their unpretentious and short-term actions are based on imitation of each other, but they speak of nascent communication. However, no matter how attractive the game with a peer is, an adult or a toy that appears in the field of view is distracting. children from each other.

There may be arguments and aggression associated with ignorance of behavior, which in turn leads to tears in babies. In order to avoid conflicts, to show children how to behave, to evoke humanistic and kind feelings, a fairy tale helps the teacher in his work. Children are ready to perceive the meaning of the work through fairy-tale characters and project it into their lives.

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3. The specifics of the mental development of the child.

What is development? How is it characterized? What is the fundamental difference between development and any other changes in an object? As you know, an object can change, but not develop. Growth, for example, is a quantitative change in a given object, including a mental process. There are processes that fluctuate within "less - more". These are processes of growth in the proper and true sense of the word. Growth occurs over time and is measured in terms of time. The main characteristic of growth is the process of quantitative changes in the internal structure and composition of the individual elements included in the object, without significant changes in the structure of individual processes. For example, when measuring the physical growth of a child, we see a quantitative increase. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there are phenomena of growth in mental processes as well. For example, the growth of vocabulary without changing the functions of speech.

But behind these processes of quantitative growth, other phenomena and processes can occur. Then the growth processes become only symptoms, behind which are hidden significant changes in the system and structure of processes. During such periods, jumps in the growth line are observed, which indicate significant changes in the body itself. For example, the endocrine glands mature, and profound changes take place in the physical development of the adolescent. In such cases, when there are significant changes in the structure and properties of the phenomenon, we are dealing with development.

Development, first of all, is characterized by qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X. Werner, L. S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them are: differentiation, dismemberment of the previously single element; the emergence of new aspects, new elements in development itself; restructuring of links between the sides of the object. As psychological examples, one can mention the differentiation of the natural conditioned reflex to the position under the chest and the revival complex; the emergence of a sign function in infancy; change during childhood of the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness. Each of these processes corresponds to the listed development criteria.

As L. S. Vygotsky showed, there are many different types of development. Therefore, it is important to correctly find the place that among them is occupied by the mental development of the child, that is, to determine the specifics of mental development among other developmental processes. L. S. Vygotsky distinguished: reformed and unreformed types of development. A preformed type is a type when at the very beginning, both the stages that the phenomenon (the organism) will pass and the final result that the phenomenon will achieve are set, fixed, fixed. Here everything is given from the very beginning. An example is embryonic development. Despite the fact that embryogenesis has its own history (there is a tendency to reduce the underlying stages, the newest stage affects the previous stages), but this does not change the type of development. In psychology, there has been an attempt to represent mental development on the principle of embryonic development. This is the concept of St. Hall. It is based on Haeckel's biogenetic law: ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. Mental development was considered by Art. Hall as a brief repetition of the stages of mental development of animals and ancestors of modern man.

The unpreformed type of development is the most common on our planet. It also includes the development of the Galaxy, the development of the Earth, the process of biological evolution, the development of society. The process of mental development of the child also belongs to this type of processes. The unpreformed path of development is not predetermined. Children of different eras develop differently and reach different levels of development. From the very beginning, from the moment the child is born, neither the stages through which he must go, nor the end he must reach are given. Child development is an unpreformed type of development, but it is a very special process - a process that is determined not from below, but from above, by the form of practical and theoretical activity that exists at a given level of development of society (As the poet said: "Only born, already waiting for us Shakespeare"). This is the nature of child development. Its final forms are not given, but given. Not a single process of development, except ontogenetic, is carried out according to a ready-made model. Human development follows the pattern that exists in society. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development is the process of interaction between real and ideal forms. The task of a child psychologist is to trace the logic of mastering ideal forms. The child does not immediately master the spiritual and material wealth of mankind. But outside the process of assimilation of ideal forms, development is generally impossible.

Development is mainly characterized by growth. These are processes of growth in the proper and true sense of the word. The main characteristic of growth is the process of quantitative changes without changes in the internal structure and composition of its individual elements, without significant changes in the structure of individual processes. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there are phenomena of growth in mental processes as well. For example, the growth of vocabulary without changing the functions of speech.
Development, first of all, is characterized by qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X. Werner, L. S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them are: differentiation, dismemberment of the previously single element; the emergence of new aspects, new elements in development itself; restructuring of links between the sides of the object.
L. S. Vygotsky distinguished between preformed and unpreformed types of development. A preformed type is a type when at the very beginning, both the stages that the phenomenon (the organism) will pass and the final result that the phenomenon will achieve are set, fixed, fixed. Here everything is given from the very beginning. An example is embryonic development. Despite the fact that embryogenesis has its own history (there is a tendency to reduce the underlying stages, the newest stage affects the previous stages), but this does not change the type of development.
The unpreformed type of development is the most common. The process of mental development of the child also belongs to this type of processes. The unpreformed path of development is not predetermined. Children of different eras develop differently and reach different levels of development. From the very beginning, from the moment the child is born, neither the stages through which he must go, nor the end he must reach are given. Child development is an unpreformed type of development, but it is a very special process - a process that is determined not from below, but from above, by the form of practical and theoretical activity that exists at a given level of development of society. This is the nature of child development. Its final forms are not given, not given. Not a single process of development, except ontogenetic, is carried out according to a ready-made model. Human development follows the pattern that exists in society. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development is the process of interaction between real and ideal forms. The child does not immediately master the spiritual and material wealth of mankind. But outside the process of assimilation of ideal forms, development is generally impossible. Therefore, within the unpreformed type of development, the mental development of the child is a special process. The process of ontogenetic development is a process unlike anything else, an extremely peculiar process that takes place in the form of assimilation.

In the process of its development, the child learns not only the content of cultural experience, but the methods and forms of cultural behavior, cultural ways of thinking. In the development of the child's behavior, therefore, two main lines must be distinguished. One is the line of natural development of behavior, closely connected with the processes of general organic growth and maturation of the child. The other is the line of cultural improvement of psychological functions, development of new ways of thinking, mastery of cultural means of behavior. So, for example, an older child can remember better and more than a younger child in two absolutely various reasons. The processes of memory went through a certain development during this period, they rose to a higher level, but along which of the two lines this development of memory proceeded can be revealed only with the help of psychological analysis.
There is every reason to assume that cultural development consists in the assimilation of such methods of behavior, which are based on the use and use of signs as means for the implementation of one or another psychological operation; that cultural development consists precisely in the mastery of such auxiliary means of behavior that mankind has created in the process of its historical development, and what are the language, writing, number system, etc. We are convinced of this not only by the study of the psychological development of primitive man, but also by direct and immediate observations on children (also according to Vygotsky).