The blood of a person of group a contains. What are blood types and Rh factor

Inheritance of the blood type of a child

At the beginning of the last century, scientists proved the existence of 4 blood groups. How are blood groups inherited in a child?

The Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner, mixing the blood serum of some people with erythrocytes taken from the blood of others, found that with some combinations of erythrocytes and sera, "gluing" occurs - erythrocytes stick together and form clots, while others do not.

Studying the structure of red blood cells, Landsteiner discovered special substances. He divided them into two categories, A and B, highlighting the third, where he took the cells in which they were not. Later, his students - A. von Decastello and A. Sturli - discovered erythrocytes containing both A- and B-type markers at the same time.

As a result of research, a system of division into blood groups arose, which was called ABO. We are still using this system.

• I (0) - blood group is characterized by the absence of antigens A and B;
• II (A) - is established in the presence of antigen A;
• III (AB) - antigens B;
• IV (AB) - antigens A and B.

This discovery made it possible to avoid losses during transfusions caused by the incompatibility of the blood of patients and donors. For the first time successful transfusions were carried out before. So, in the history of medicine of the XIX century, a successful blood transfusion to a woman in labor is described. After receiving a quarter liter of donated blood, she said, she felt "as if life itself penetrates into her body."

But until the end of the 20th century, such manipulations were rare and carried out only in emergency cases, sometimes doing more harm than good. But thanks to the discoveries of Austrian scientists, blood transfusions have become a much safer procedure that has saved many lives.

The AB0 system turned scientists' ideas about the properties of blood upside down. Their further study by genetic scientists. They proved that the principles of inheritance of a child's blood group are the same as for other traits. These laws were formulated in the second half of the 19th century by Mendel, based on experiments with peas familiar to all of us from biology school textbooks.

Child's blood type

Inheritance of a child's blood type according to Mendel's law

• According to the laws of Mendel, parents with I blood group will have children who do not have A- and B-type antigens.
• Spouses with I and II have children with the corresponding blood groups. The same situation is typical for groups I and III.
• People with group IV can have children with any blood type, with the exception of I, regardless of what type of antigens are present in their partner.
• The most unpredictable is the inheritance of a blood group by a child in the union of owners with groups II and III. Their children can have any of the four blood types with the same probability.
• The exception to the rule is the so-called bombay phenomenon". In some people, the A and B antigens are present in the phenotype, but do not appear phenotypically. True, this is extremely rare and mainly among the Indians, for which it got its name.

Rh factor inheritance

The birth of a child with a negative Rh factor in a family with Rh-positive parents causes deep bewilderment at best, distrust at worst. Reproaches and doubts about the fidelity of the spouse. Oddly enough, there is nothing exceptional in this situation. There is a simple explanation for such a delicate problem.

Rh factor is a lipoprotein located on the membranes of red blood cells in 85% of people (they are considered Rh-positive). In the absence of it, they speak of Rh-negative blood. These indicators are denoted by the Latin letters Rh with a plus or minus sign, respectively. For the study of Rhesus, as a rule, one pair of genes is considered.

• A positive Rh factor is designated DD or Dd and is a dominant trait, and a negative one is dd, a recessive one. When people with heterozygous Rh (Dd) are mated, their children will be Rh positive in 75% of cases and negative in the remaining 25%.

Parents: Dd x Dd. Children: dd, dd, dd. Heterozygosity occurs as a result of the birth of an Rh-conflict child from an Rh-negative mother, or may persist in the genes for many generations.

Trait Inheritance

For centuries, parents only wondered what their child would be like. Today there is an opportunity to look into the beautiful far away. Thanks to ultrasound, you can find out the sex and some features of the anatomy and physiology of the baby.

Genetics allows you to determine the likely color of the eyes and hair, and even the presence of an ear for music in a baby. All these traits are inherited according to the laws of Mendel and are divided into dominant and recessive. Brown eyes, hair with small curls, and even the ability to roll the tongue into a tube are dominant signs. Most likely, the child will inherit them.

Unfortunately, the dominant features also include a tendency to early baldness and graying, myopia and a gap between the front teeth.

Grays and grays are classified as recessive. Blue eyes, straight hair, fair skin, mediocre ear for music. These symptoms are less likely to occur.

Boy or...

For many centuries in a row, the woman was blamed for the lack of an heir in the family. To achieve the goal - the birth of a boy - women resorted to diets and calculated favorable days for conception. But let's look at the problem from a scientific point of view. Human germ cells (eggs and sperm) have half the set of chromosomes (that is, there are 23 of them). 22 of them coincide in men and women. Only the last pair is different. In women, these are XX chromosomes, and in men, XY.

So the probability of having a child of one sex or another depends entirely on the chromosome set of the sperm that managed to fertilize the egg. Simply put, the gender of the child is fully responsible ... dad!

Table of inheritance of a blood group by a child, depending on the blood types of the father and mother

Table 2. Inheritance of the Rh system blood type, possible in a child, depending on the blood types of his parents.

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At the heart of what distinguishes blood types, there is a classification according to the Rh factors - positive and negative. These results have been proven by laboratory research many years ago.

Even despite the fact that it is the fourth blood group that has not yet been finally disclosed, its main features are known and understandable to modern man. This applies to the nature of people, diet, various diseases, pregnancy and many other features. You can also use a blood test to find out the Rh factor and a certain affiliation of a person. Therefore, plasma in the body plays the most importance in all its senses.

Varieties

Since the existence of four blood groups is already known, it is worth noting that there are:

0 (I) - 1st blood group

A (II) - 2nd blood group

B (III) - 3rd blood group

AB (IV) - 4th blood group

Also in medicine there is a special table that distributes all groups for compatibility during transfusion and pregnancy. They also take into account the Rh factor, which plays a very important role in compatibility.

Such differences are determined by the correspondence of antigens and antibodies. In medicine, there is a basic classification system - AB0. In the form of the fact that there is a Rh factor, you need to know what it is and what types of it are. Rhesus is a special protein that is either on the surface of red blood cells in the blood, or it is not.

The presence of such a factor indicates a positive Rh factor, and the absence - a negative one. Such a protein is called an antigen and its presence depends on the group predisposition. The Rh factor is determined immediately after birth and does not change throughout a person's life. Therefore, it is useful and even necessary to know what Rh factors you and your family have. For example, this may be useful for transfusion of blood types or in any other emergency for other recipients. To date, almost 80% of the population of the entire planet has a positive Rh, that is, the presence of antigens on the surface of red blood cells. All the rest have a correspondingly negative Rh factor.

Indications for blood types

No matter how many blood types there are, the indications for their existence are almost always the same. This is especially true of the two most common groups - the first and second. But despite this, the third and fourth groups are rarer. This:

• possible hemolytic disease of newborn babies, which occurs when the mother and child are incompatible;
• determination of compatibility for transfusion;
• preparation for surgery and determination of the Rh factor;
• pregnancy - direct preparation for pregnancy and careful monitoring throughout the entire period, especially for negative Rh.

Differences in blood types

All four blood groups differ from each other not only in their composition, but also in the characteristics of the person himself. Given that the first and second groups are the most common, they have their own characteristics. It can be said about such people that they are the most enduring and prepared for the most different situations. This they have preserved since the time of mutation, when they had to adapt to different habitats and eat different foods. No matter how many such people there are, they are somehow different from each other, because each person is individual in his own way.

The third and fourth blood groups are considered rarer, but the fourth negative is the rarest of all groups. They all differ from each other in terms of nutrition and health. For example, it is quite difficult for women with the fourth negative blood type to successfully conceive and bear a healthy child. To do this, it is necessary to undergo preliminary training, take various tests and be observed all the time during pregnancy.

Whatever the results, you should always believe in the best and hope for a happy family in medical practice, there are quite a few cases when women with a negative fourth bear and naturally give birth to healthy babies. There are also the worst forecasts, when, with some compatibility of blood types, a couple cannot have children. But in such situations, people are offered special treatment approaches to fertilize the egg. Most often, a special vaccine is chosen, the action of which is aimed at the temporary destruction of some antigens and compatibility with others. But on the other hand, you need to remember, no matter how many different options for solving the problem, you need to try to get pregnant naturally.

For different blood types, many nutritionists make individual diets, choosing only those foods that are suitable for everyone. This is especially true of the fourth, because it is the rarest and most often such people suffer from certain diseases. These are cancerous diseases, various infectious and viral infections.

How is the analysis carried out?

To determine the blood type, an analysis is taken from a vein on an empty stomach, which allows you to fully determine the presence of the Rh factor and possible other contraindications to transfusion. This is also done to determine possible compatibility with all others. Most often this is done in order to determine approximately how many people have certain blood types. The duration of such an analysis of the definition of groups lasts for 1-2 days. No specific preparation is required for this, except to exclude the intake of all medications and the use of alcohol. Just during this time, you can mentally prepare yourself for any result.

Some doctors prescribe a certain diet that will remove all harmful substances from the body, and the result will be the most accurate. Most often, women do this when they are planning a pregnancy or are already pregnant. This also applies to men who are preparing to become fathers, because married couples always need to control their health indicators, as well as the compatibility of groups of one and the other partner. It can also be useful for determining paternity, which in particular requires an analysis of the Rh factor.

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How many blood types does a person have

Blood group - a specific set of properties of red blood cells, different or the same in many people. It is impossible to identify a person only by characteristic changes in the blood, but this makes it possible, under certain conditions, to detect a relationship between the donor and the recipient, and is an indispensable requirement for organ and tissue transplantation.

Blood groups in the form in which we are used to talking about them were proposed by the Austrian scientist K. Landsteiner in 1900. 30 years later, he got for it Nobel Prize in medicine. There were other options, but Landsteiner's AB0 classification proved to be the most convenient and practical.

At present, knowledge of cellular mechanisms, discoveries of genetics are added. So what is a blood group?

What are blood groups

The main "participants" that make up a certain blood group are red blood cells. There are about three hundred different combinations of protein compounds on their membrane, which are controlled by chromosome number 9. This proves the hereditary acquisition of properties, the impossibility of their change during life.

It turned out that with the help of only two typical antigen proteins A and B (or their absence 0) it is possible to create a “portrait” of any person. Because the corresponding substances (agglutinins) are produced in plasma for these antigens, they are called α and β.

So four possible combinations turned out, they are also blood types.

AB0 system

How many blood groups, so many combinations in the AB0 system:

• the first (0) - has no antigens, but there are both agglutinins in plasma - α and β;
• the second (A) - in erythrocytes there is one antigen A and β-agglutinin in plasma;
• the third (B) -B-antigen in erythrocytes and α-agglutinin;
• the fourth (AB) - has both antigens (A and B), but there are no agglutinins.

The designation of the group in Latin letters has been fixed: large ones mean the type of antigen, small ones - the presence of agglutinins.

What is "Rh factor"

The researchers found the Rh factor in the blood serum and confirmed its ability to stick together red blood cells. Since then, the blood group has been necessarily added with information about the person's Rh affiliation.

About 15% of the world's population has a negative reaction to Rh. Studies of the geographical and ethnic characteristics of blood groups have shown that the population differs in group and Rhesus: black people are overwhelmingly Rh-positive, and in the Spanish province with Basques living, 30% of the inhabitants do not have the Rh factor. The reasons for this phenomenon have not yet been established.

Among the Rh antigens, 50 proteins were identified, they are also designated in Latin letters: D and further alphabetically. Practical use finds the most important D Rh factor. It occupies 85% of the structure.

Other group classifications

The discovery of unexpected group incompatibility in all the analyzes done continues to develop and does not stop research on the significance of different erythrocyte antigens.

1. The Kell system - ranks third in identification after Rh belonging, takes into account 2 antigens "K" and "k", forms three possible combinations. It is important during pregnancy, the occurrence of hemolytic disease of the newborn, complications of blood transfusion.
2. The Kidd system - includes two antigens associated with hemoglobin molecules, provides for three options, is important for blood transfusion.
3. Duffy system - adds 2 more antigens and 3 blood types.
4. The MNSs system is more complex, includes 9 groups at once, takes into account specific antibodies during blood transfusion, and clarifies the pathology in newborn babies.

The definition is shown taking into account different group systems

The Vel-negative group was discovered in 1950 in a patient suffering from colon cancer. She had a severe reaction to the second blood transfusion. During the first transfusion, antibodies to an unknown substance were formed. The blood was single-group by Rhesus. The new group began to be called "Vel-negative". Subsequently, it was found that it occurs with a frequency of 1 case per 2.5 thousand. Only in 2013, an antigen protein called SMIM1 was discovered.

In 2012, a joint study by scientists from the USA, France and Japan identified two new protein complexes in the erythrocyte membrane (ABCB6 and ABCG2). They, in addition to antigenic properties, are engaged in the transfer of electrolyte ions from the outside into the cells and back.

IN medical institutions there is no way to know blood groups by all known factors. Only the group affiliation in the AB0 system and the Rh factor are determined.

Methods for determining blood groups

Methods for determining group membership depend on the serum or erythrocyte standard used. The most popular 4 ways.

Standard Simple Method

It is used in medical institutions, at feldsher-obstetric stations.

The patient's erythrocytes are taken in capillary blood from a finger, standard sera with known antigenic properties are added. They are made under special conditions at the "Blood Transfusion Stations", labeling and storage conditions are strictly observed. Each study always uses two series of sera.

On a clean white plate, a drop of blood is mixed with four types of serum. The result is read in 5 minutes.

Double cross reaction method

It is used as a clarifying method when agglutination is doubtful with the first method. Here the erythrocytes are known and the patient's serum is taken. The drops are mixed on a white plate and also evaluated after 5 minutes.

Zolicloning method

Natural sera are being replaced by synthetic anti-A and anti-B soliclones. Serum controls are not required. The method is considered more reliable.

If there is no reaction to anti-A agglutinins in the upper row, then there are no corresponding antigens in the patient's erythrocytes, this is possible with the third group

Express determination method

Provided for field use. Blood type and Rh factor are determined simultaneously using plastic cards with wells of the "Erythrotest-Groupcard" set. The necessary dried reagents are already applied to the bottom of them.

The method allows you to set the group and Rhesus even in a preserved sample. The result is “ready” after 3 minutes.

Method for determining the Rh factor

Used venous blood and standard sera of two types, Petri dish. Serum is mixed with a drop of blood, put in a water bath for 10 minutes. The result is determined by the appearance of agglutination of erythrocytes.

Without fail, Rh is determined:

• in preparation for a planned operation;
• during pregnancy;
• from donors and recipients.

Blood compatibility issues

It is believed that this problem is caused by the urgent need for blood transfusions 100 years ago during the First World War, when the Rh factor was not yet known. The large number of complications of single blood transfusions has led to subsequent research and limitations.

Currently, vital signs have made it possible to transfuse in the absence of one-group donor blood of no more than 0.5 liters of Rh-negative 0 (I) group. Modern recommendations suggest using erythrocyte mass, which is less allergenic to the body.

The information in the table is used less and less

The above systematic studies of other groups of antigens have changed the existing opinion about people with the first Rh-negative blood group, as universal donors, and with the fourth Rh-positive, as recipients suitable for any donor properties.

Until now, plasma prepared from the fourth blood group is used to compensate for a sharp protein deficiency, since it does not contain agglutinins.

Before each transfusion, an individual compatibility test is carried out: a drop of the patient's serum and a drop of donor blood are applied to a white plate in a ratio of 1:10. After 5 minutes check agglutination. The presence of small dotted flakes of erythrocytes indicates the impossibility of transfusion.

The direct harm of such a diet has been proven when trying to use it for the treatment of obesity.

Are blood types related to human health and character?

The conducted studies allowed to establish predisposing factors for the occurrence of some pathology.

• Provides reliable data on a greater propensity to disease of cardio-vascular system persons with the second, third and fourth groups than with the first.
• But people with the first group are more likely to suffer from peptic ulcer disease.
• It is believed that for the B (III) group, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease is more dangerous.

D'Adamo's theory, widely promoted over the past 20 years, has been debunked and is not considered scientific in connection with the type of diet and the danger of certain diseases.

The connection of group membership with character should be taken into account at the level of astrological predictions.

Each person should know their blood type and Rh factor. No one can be isolated from emergency situations. The analysis can be done in your clinic or at the blood transfusion station.

Types of blood groups

Blood groups are invariable inherited traits, which are a combination of erythrocyte agglutinogens. There are four blood types. It is believed that the presence four groups blood is the result of the evolutionary development of man. What are the types of blood group in a person, does the indicator affect the character, predisposition to certain diseases and other features.

Options

There is a theory of AB0, which determines the compatibility of blood groups. The fact is that antigen proteins of type A and B can be present on the surface of an erythrocyte. The surface of a red blood cell may not have an antigen protein and be smooth.

Rh factor

In addition, a classification of blood differences according to Rh (Rhesus factor) has been adopted. If Rh is present on the red blood cell, the blood is considered Rh positive. Accordingly, if there is no Rh protein on the erythrocyte, then the blood is called Rh-negative. The majority of the population of the planet Earth (about 80%) have Rh +. Accordingly, 20% of earthlings have Rh-.

Table of blood groups and Rh factors

In the mid-twentieth century, it was generally accepted that type 0(I) blood, which did not have the Rh protein, was universal and could be transfused to people with all kinds of blood types. Blood donors with these blood characteristics were considered universal. The incompatibility of the "universal blood" groups was not often recorded, so such facts were not given much attention.

It is now understood that other antigens are able to cause complications in blood transfusion. Therefore, even knowing the answer to the question: what are the blood types? does not guarantee complete safety during the transfusion procedure. Pre-prepared and carefully preserved own blood is best suited for blood transfusion. It can be used during the operation.

Compatibility differences

All blood groups differ not only in composition, but characterize the person himself. It turned out that belonging to the first two types of blood provides an advantage in stress resistance, endurance and health. Apparently, people with such blood characteristics evolved under conditions of rapidly changing nutritional and living conditions, which led to gene mutations.

The percentage of residents with the third, and especially the 4th blood group is much less than the owners of groups I and II. In women who find it difficult to get pregnant, who find it difficult to bear a child, what are the blood types? The statistics point to women in the fourth group of Rh-. They need to take a variety of tests, undergo enhanced primary training and, despite the difficulties, do not lose faith in a successful outcome.

Blood type incompatibility can make it impossible for some couples to have children.

Blood type compatibility table

The unfortunate spouses do not experience any methods of treatment. From artificial fertilization of an egg to the use of a vaccine that temporarily suppresses an immune imbalance by inactivating incompatible antigens.

In people with 4 and 3 blood groups, the strength of health is inferior to the owners of the first and second blood groups. And the physiology of digestion is a little different.

Nutritionists make special diets for blood groups. Most of the problems are in people with the fourth blood group.

Methods of determination

How to determine the blood group? Blood is taken on an empty stomach, from a finger. But, you can also use venous blood selected for general analysis blood. No preparation is required for blood sampling for analysis. It is not allowed to drink alcoholic beverages and medicines on the eve of blood sampling. And, only in exceptional situations, for some patients, the doctor prescribes a therapeutic diet. This technique allows you to remove ballast substances and toxins. Especially often, this has to be done by pregnant women and in planning conception.

Men preparing to become fathers also need to monitor the compatibility of their blood with that of their partner. A paternity test cannot be done unless the blood type and Rh are determined.

There are many methods for determining blood groups. This is the definition of coliclones, cross method, monoclonal antibodies, gel cards. The generally accepted method is considered to determine AB0.

Serum test results

For analyzes, a room with good illumination and a temperature of 20 ± 5 ° C is required. The full name of the patient is recorded, then the groups are designated: 0, A, B. Apply a drop of diagnostic sera under each inscription using individual dry pipettes. Blood is taken from a finger, mixed with sera using glass rods, shaken for about 5 minutes and an agglutination reaction is observed, that is, the appearance of red lumps. Three minutes later, a drop of saline is added. If the lumps have not collapsed in 5 minutes, then hemagglutination is true.

The blood of the first group does not give a reaction, the blood of the second group gives positive reactions with sera AB and A, the blood of group III gives positive reactions with sera AB and B, the blood of the fourth group gives positive reactions with all three sera.

When determining the Rh factor, a plate or plate is used that has a surface that can be wetted. Signed: "serum control" and "serum antirhesus". Take a drop of blood from a finger. Mixed with sera with dry glass rods, shake for about 5 minutes and observe the agglutination reaction, that is, the appearance of red lumps. After three minutes, add 6 drops of saline. If the lumps have not collapsed in 5 minutes, then hemagglutination is true.

The control serum shows no agglutination. If agglutination occurs in a drop of anti-Rhesus serum, then the blood has Rh +, if not, then RH-.

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Blood type (AB0): essence, definition in a child, compatibility, what does it affect?

Some life situations (upcoming surgery, pregnancy, desire to become a donor, etc.) require an analysis, which we used to call simply: “blood type”. Meanwhile, in the broad sense of this term, there is some inaccuracy here, since most of us mean the well-known AB0 erythrocyte system, described in 1901 by Landsteiner, but do not know about it and therefore say “blood test per group”, thus separating, another important Rhesus system.

Karl Landsteiner, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, continued to work throughout his life on the search for other antigens located on the surface of red blood cells, and in 1940 the world learned about the existence of the Rhesus system, which occupies the second place in importance. In addition, scientists in 1927 found protein substances secreted into the erythrocyte systems - MNs and Pp. At that time, this was a huge breakthrough in medicine, because people suspected that blood loss could lead to the death of the body, and someone else's blood could save lives, so they made attempts to transfuse it from animals to humans and from humans to humans. Unfortunately, success did not always come, but science was steadily moving forward and at present we are only out of habit talking about the blood type, meaning the AB0 system.

What is a blood type and how did it become known?

Determination of the blood group is based on the classification of genetically determined individually specific proteins of all tissues human body. These organ-specific protein structures are called antigens(alloantigens, isoantigens), but they should not be confused with antigens specific for certain pathological formations (tumors) or infection-causing proteins entering the body from outside.

The antigenic set of tissues (and blood, of course), given from birth, determines the biological individuality of a particular individual, which can be a person, any animal, or a microorganism, that is, isoantigens characterize group-specific features that make it possible to distinguish these individuals within their species.

The alloantigenic properties of our tissues began to be studied by Karl Landsteiner, who mixed the blood (erythrocytes) of people with the sera of other people and noticed that in some cases the erythrocytes stick together (agglutination), while in others the color remains homogeneous. True, at first the scientist found 3 groups (A, B, C), the 4th blood group (AB) was discovered later by the Czech Jan Jansky. In 1915, the first standard sera containing specific antibodies (agglutinins) that determined group affiliation were already obtained in England and America. In Russia, the blood group according to the AB0 system began to be determined in 1919, but the digital designations (1, 2, 3, 4) were put into practice in 1921, and a little later they began to use alphanumeric nomenclature, where antigens were designated in Latin letters (A and C), while antibodies are Greek (α and β).

It turns out there are so many...

To date, immunohematology has replenished with more than 250 antigens located on erythrocytes. The major erythrocyte antigen systems include:

• AB0 containing varieties of antigens A, B, H;
• MNSs (M, N, S, s, U);
• Rhesus (Rhesus, Rh - D, C, E, d, c, e);
• P (P 1 , P 2 , p, p k);
• Lutheran (Lutheran - Lu a, Lu b);
• Kell (Kell - K, k) or Kell-Cellano;
• Lewis (Lewis - Le a Le b). This system divides the human population into "highlighters" (80%) and "non-highlighters" (20%), and earlier (before the advent of genetic fingerprinting), together with other systems, it was actively used in forensic medicine;
• Duffy (Duffy - Fy a, Fy b)
• Kidd (Kidd - Jk a, Jk b);
• Diego (Diego - Di a, Di b);
• ii (I, i);
• Xg (Xg a).

These systems, in addition to transfusiology (blood transfusion), where AB0 and Rh still play the main role, most often remind themselves of themselves in obstetric practice (miscarriages, stillbirths, the birth of children with severe hemolytic disease), however, it is not always possible to determine the erythrocyte antigens of many systems (except for AB0, Rh), which is due to the lack of typing sera, the production of which requires large material and labor costs. Thus, when we talk about blood groups 1, 2, 3, 4, we mean the main antigenic system of erythrocytes, called the AB0 system.

Table: possible combinations of AB0 and Rh (blood groups and Rh factors)

In addition, approximately from the middle of the last century, antigens began to be discovered one after another:

1. Platelets, which in most cases repeated the antigenic determinants of erythrocytes, however, with a lesser degree of severity, which makes it difficult to determine the blood group on platelets;
2. Nuclear cells, primarily lymphocytes (HLA - histocompatibility system), which opened up wide opportunities for organ and tissue transplantation and solving some genetic problems (hereditary predisposition to a certain pathology);
3. Plasma proteins (the number of described genetic systems has already exceeded a dozen).

The discoveries of many genetically determined structures (antigens) made it possible not only to take a different approach to determining the blood group, but also to strengthen the position of clinical immunohematology in terms of fight against various pathological processes, made possible safe blood transfusion, as well as transplantation of organs and tissues.

The main system that divides people into 4 groups

The group affiliation of erythrocytes depends on group-specific antigens A and B (agglutinogens):

• Containing in its composition protein and polysaccharides;
• Closely associated with the stroma of red blood cells;
• Not related to hemoglobin, which does not participate in the agglutination reaction in any way.

By the way, agglutinogens can be found on other blood cells (platelets, leukocytes) or in tissues and body fluids (saliva, tears, amniotic fluid), where they are determined in much smaller quantities.

Thus, on the stroma of the erythrocytes of a particular person, antigens A and B can be found (together or separately, but always forming a pair, for example, AB, AA, A0 or BB, B0) or they can not be found there at all (00).

In addition, globulin fractions (agglutinins α and β) that are compatible with the antigen (A with β, B with α) float in the blood plasma, called natural antibodies.

Obviously, in the first group, which does not contain antigens, both types of group antibodies, α and β, will be present. In the fourth group, normally, there should not be any natural globulin fractions, because if this is allowed, antigens and antibodies will begin to stick together: α will agglutinate (glue) A, and β, respectively, B.

Depending on the combinations of options and the presence of certain antigens and antibodies, the group affiliation of human blood can be represented as follows:

• 1 blood group 0αβ(I): antigens - 00(I), antibodies - α and β;
• 2 blood group Aβ(II): antigens - AA or A0(II), antibodies - β;
• 3 blood group Bα (III): antigens - BB or B0 (III), antibodies - α
• 4 blood group AB0 (IV): antigens only A and B, no antibodies.

It may surprise the reader to learn that there is a blood group that does not fit into this classification. It was discovered in 1952 by a resident of Bombay, which is why it was called "Bombay". Antigen-serological variant of erythrocyte type « bombey» does not contain antigens of the AB0 system, and in the serum of such people, along with natural antibodies α and β, anti-H are found(antibodies directed to substance H, which differentiates antigens A and B and does not allow their presence on the stroma of erythrocytes). Subsequently, "Bombay" and other rare types of group affiliation were found in different parts of the world. Of course, you cannot envy such people, because in case of massive blood loss, they need to look for a saving environment all over the globe.

Ignorance of the laws of genetics can cause tragedy in the family

The blood group of each person according to the AB0 system is the result of the inheritance of one antigen from the mother, the other from the father. Receiving hereditary information from both parents, a person in his phenotype has half of each of them, that is, the blood group of the parents and the child is a combination of two traits, therefore it may not coincide with the blood type of the father or mother.

Mismatches between the blood types of parents and the child give rise to doubts and suspicions in the minds of individual men about the infidelity of their spouse. This happens due to the lack of elementary knowledge of the laws of nature and genetics, therefore, in order to avoid tragic mistakes on the part of the male, whose ignorance often breaks happy family relationships, we consider it necessary to once again explain where this or that blood type comes from in the child according to the AB0 system and bring examples of expected results.

Option 1. If both parents have the first blood type: 00(I) x 00(I), then the child will have only the first 0(I) group, all others are excluded. This is because the genes that synthesize antigens of the first blood group - recessive, they can only manifest themselves in homozygous state when no other gene (dominant) is suppressed.

Option 2. Both parents have the second group A (II). However, it can be either homozygous, when two traits are the same and dominant (AA), or heterozygous, represented by a dominant and recessive variant (A0), so the following combinations are possible here:

• AA(II) x AA(II) → AA(II);
• AA(II) x A0(II) → AA(II);
• A0 (II) x A0 (II) → AA (II), A0 (II), 00 (I), that is, with such a combination of parental phenotypes, both the first and second groups are likely, third and fourth are excluded.

Option 3. One of the parents has the first group 0 (I), the other has the second:

Possible groups in a child are A (II) and 0 (I), excluded - B(III) and AB(IV).

Option 4. In the case of a combination of two third groups, inheritance will go according to option 2: a possible membership would be the third or first group, while the second and fourth will be excluded.

Option 5. When one of the parents has the first group, and the second has the third, inheritance is similar option 3– the child may have B(III) and 0(I), but excluded A(II) and AB(IV) .

Option 6. Parent groups A(II) and B(III) when inherited, they can give any group membership of the system AB0(1, 2, 3, 4). The emergence of 4 blood types is an example codominant inheritance when both antigens in the phenotype are equal and equally manifest themselves as a new trait (A + B = AB):

Option 7. With a combination of the second and fourth groups, parents can the second, third and fourth group in a child, the first one is excluded:

Option 8. A similar situation develops in the case of a combination of the third and fourth groups: A (II), B (III) and AB (IV) will be possible, and the first one is excluded.

Option 9 - the most interesting. The presence of blood groups 1 and 4 in parents as a result turns into the appearance of a second or third blood group in a child, but never – first and fourth:

Table: child's blood type based on parents' blood types

Obviously, the statement about the same group affiliation in parents and children is a delusion, because genetics obeys its own laws. As for determining the child's blood group according to the group affiliation of the parents, this is only possible if the parents have the first group, that is, in this case, the appearance of A (II) or B (III) will exclude biological paternity or motherhood. The combination of the fourth and first groups will lead to the emergence of new phenotypic traits (group 2 or 3), while the old ones will be lost.

Boy, girl, group compatibility

If in the old days, for a birth in the family of an heir, they put the reins under the pillow, but now everything is put almost on a scientific basis. Trying to deceive nature and “order” the sex of the child in advance, future parents perform simple arithmetic operations: they divide the father’s age by 4, and the mother’s age by 3, whoever has the largest balance wins. Sometimes this coincides, and sometimes it is disappointing, so what is the probability of getting the desired gender using calculations - official medicine does not comment, therefore it is up to everyone to calculate or not, but the method is painless and absolutely harmless. You can try, what if you get lucky?

for reference: what really affects the sex of the child - combinations of X and Y chromosomes

But the compatibility of the blood type of the parents is a completely different matter, and not in terms of the sex of the child, but in the sense of whether he will be born at all. The formation of immune antibodies (anti-A and anti-B), although rare, can interfere with the normal course of pregnancy (IgG) and even feeding the baby (IgA). Fortunately, the AB0 system does not interfere with reproduction so often, which cannot be said about the Rh factor. It can cause miscarriage or the birth of babies with hemolytic disease of the newborn, the best consequence of which is deafness, and in the worst case, the child cannot be saved at all.

Group affiliation and pregnancy

Determination of the blood group according to the AB0 and Rhesus (Rh) systems is a mandatory procedure when registering for pregnancy.

In the case of a negative Rh factor in the expectant mother and the same result in the future father of the child, you don’t have to worry, because the baby will also have a negative Rh factor.

Do not immediately panic a "negative" woman and first(abortions and miscarriages are also considered) pregnancies. Unlike the AB0 (α, β) system, the Rhesus system does not have natural antibodies, so the body still only recognizes the “foreign”, but does not react to it in any way. Immunization will occur during childbirth, therefore, so that the woman’s body does not “remember” the presence of foreign antigens (Rh factor is positive), on the first day after childbirth, a special anti-Rhesus serum is introduced to the puerperal, protecting subsequent pregnancies. In the case of a strong immunization of a “negative” woman with a “positive” antigen (Rh +), compatibility for conception is a big question, therefore, without looking at long-term treatment, a woman is haunted by failures (miscarriages). The body of a woman with a negative Rh, having once “remembered” a foreign protein (“memory cell”), will respond with active production of immune antibodies at subsequent meetings (pregnancy) and will in every possible way reject him, that is, her own desired and long-awaited child, if he has positive Rh factor.

Compatibility for conception sometimes should be borne in mind in relation to other systems. By the way, AB0 is quite loyal to the presence of a stranger and rarely gives immunization. However, there are known cases of the occurrence of immune antibodies in women with AB0-incompatible pregnancy, when the damaged placenta provides access to the fetal erythrocytes in the mother's blood. It is generally accepted that the highest probability of isoimmunization of a woman is introduced by vaccinations (DTP), which contain group-specific substances of animal origin. First of all, such a feature was noticed for substance A.

Probably, the second place after the Rhesus system in this regard can be given to the histocompatibility system (HLA), and then to Kell. In general, each of them is sometimes able to present a surprise. This is because the body of a woman who has a close relationship with a certain man, even without pregnancy, reacts to his antigens and produces antibodies. This process is called sensitization. The only question is to what level sensitization will reach, which depends on the concentration of immunoglobulins and the formation of antigen-antibody complexes. With a high titer of immune antibodies, compatibility for conception is in great doubt. Rather, we will talk about incompatibility, requiring huge efforts of doctors (immunologists, gynecologists), unfortunately, often in vain. A decrease in titer over time also does little to reassure, the “memory cell” knows its task ...

Video: pregnancy, blood type and Rh conflict

Compatible blood transfusion

In addition to compatibility for conception, no less important is transfusion compatibility where the AB0 system plays a dominant role (transfusion of blood that is incompatible with the AB0 system is very dangerous and can be fatal!). Often a person believes that the 1 (2, 3, 4) blood type of him and his neighbor must be the same, that the first will always suit the first, the second - the second, and so on, and in some circumstances they (neighbors) can help each other friend. It would seem that a recipient with a 2nd blood group should accept a donor of the same group, but this is not always the case. The thing is that antigens A and B have their own varieties. For example, antigen A has the most allospecific variants (A 1, A 2, A 3, A 4, A 0, A X, etc.), but B is not much inferior (B 1, B X, B 3, B weak, etc. .), that is, it turns out that these options may simply not be combined, even though when analyzing blood for a group, the result will be A (II) or B (III). Thus, given such heterogeneity, can one imagine how many varieties can a 4th blood group have, containing both A and B antigen in its composition?

The statement that blood type 1 is the best, as it suits everyone without exception, and the fourth accepts any, is also outdated. For example, some people with 1 blood type are called "dangerous" for some reason. universal donor. And the danger lies in the fact that, having no antigens A and B on erythrocytes, the plasma of these people contains a large titer of natural antibodies α and β, which, entering the bloodstream of a recipient of other groups (except the first), begin to agglutinate the antigens located there (A and / or IN).

blood type compatibility during transfusion

At present, transfusion of different types of blood is not practiced, with the exception of some cases of transfusions that require special selection. Then the first Rh-negative blood group is considered universal, the erythrocytes of which, in order to avoid immunological reactions washed 3 or 5 times. The first blood group with a positive Rh can be universal only in relation to Rh (+) erythrocytes, that is, after determining for compatibility and washing the erythrocyte mass can be transfused to a Rh-positive recipient with any group of the AB0 system.

The most common group in the European territory of the Russian Federation is the second - A (II), Rh (+), the rarest - 4 blood group with negative Rh. In blood banks, the attitude towards the latter is especially reverent, because a person with a similar antigenic composition should not die just because, if necessary, they will not find the right amount of erythrocyte mass or plasma. By the way, plasma AB(IV) Rh(-) is suitable for absolutely everyone, since it contains nothing (0), however, such a question is never considered due to the rare occurrence of 4 blood groups with negative Rh.

How is the blood group determined?

Determination of the blood group according to the AB0 system can be done by taking a drop from the finger. By the way, every health worker with a diploma of higher or secondary medical education should be able to do this, regardless of the profile of their activity. As for other systems (Rh, HLA, Kell), a blood test for a group is taken from a vein and, following the method, the affiliation is determined. Similar studies are already within the competence of the doctor. laboratory diagnostics, and immunological typing of organs and tissues (HLA) generally requires special training.

A blood test per group is done using standard sera made in special laboratories and meeting certain requirements (specificity, titer, activity), or using tsoliklones obtained in the factory. Thus, the group affiliation of erythrocytes is determined ( direct method). In order to exclude an error and obtain complete confidence in the reliability of the results obtained, at blood transfusion stations or in laboratories of surgical and, especially, obstetric hospitals, the blood group is determined cross method where serum is used as the test sample, and specially selected standard erythrocytes act as a reagent. By the way, in newborns, it is very difficult to determine the group affiliation by the cross method, although α and β agglutinins are called natural antibodies (data from birth), they begin to be synthesized only from six months and accumulate by 6-8 years.

Blood group and character

Does the blood type affect the character and is it possible to predict in advance what can be expected in the future from a one-year-old rosy-cheeked toddler? Official medicine considers group affiliation in this perspective little or no attention to these issues. A person has a lot of genes, group systems too, so one can hardly expect the fulfillment of all the predictions of astrologers and determine the character of a person in advance. However, some coincidences cannot be ruled out, because some predictions do come true.

the prevalence of blood groups in the world and the characters attributed to them

So astrology says:

1. Carriers of the first blood group are brave, strong, purposeful people. Leaders by nature, possessing indefatigable energy, they not only reach great heights themselves, but also carry others along, that is, they are wonderful organizers. At the same time, their character is not without negative traits: they can suddenly flare up and show aggression in a fit of anger.
2. People of the second blood group are patient, balanced, calm, slightly shy, empathetic and take everything to heart. They are distinguished by homeliness, thriftiness, the desire for comfort and coziness, however, stubbornness, self-criticism and conservatism interfere in solving many professional and everyday tasks.
3. The third blood type involves the search for the unknown, creative impulse, harmonious development, communication skills. With such a character, yes, move mountains, but that's bad luck - poor tolerance for routine and monotony does not allow this. The owners of group B (III) quickly change their mood, show inconstancy in their views, judgments, actions, dream a lot, which prevents the implementation of the intended goal. Yes, and their goals are changing quickly ...
4. With regard to individuals with the fourth blood type, astrologers do not support the version of some psychiatrists who claim that among its owners there are most maniacs. People who study the stars agree that the 4th group has collected the best features of the previous ones, therefore it is distinguished by a particularly good character. Leaders, organizers, possessing enviable intuition and sociability, representatives of the AB (IV) group, at the same time, are indecisive, contradictory and peculiar, their mind is constantly fighting with their hearts, but which side will win is a big question mark.

Of course, the reader understands that all this is very approximate, because people are so different. Even identical twins show some kind of individuality, at least in character.

Nutrition and diet by blood type

The concept of a blood type diet owes its appearance to the American Peter D'Adamo, who at the end of the last century (1996) published a book with recommendations proper nutrition depending on the group affiliation according to the AB0 system. At the same time, this fashionable trend penetrated into Russia and was ranked among the alternative ones.

According to the vast majority of physicians with medical education, this direction is anti-scientific and contradicts the prevailing ideas based on numerous studies. The author shares the view official medicine, so the reader has the right to choose whom to believe.

• The statement that at first all people had only the first group, its owners "hunters living in a cave", obligatory meat-eaters with a healthy digestive tract, can be safely questioned. Group substances A and B were identified in the preserved tissues of mummies (Egypt, America), whose age is more than 5000 years. Proponents of the concept "Eat right for your type" (the title of D'Adamo's book), do not indicate that the presence of O(I) antigens is considered risk factors for diseases of the stomach and intestines (peptic ulcer), in addition, carriers of this group more often than others have problems with pressure (arterial hypertension).
• The owners of the second group are recognized by Mr. D'Adamo as pure vegetarians. Given that this group affiliation in Europe is prevalent and in some areas reaches 70%, one can imagine the outcome of mass vegetarianism. Probably, mental hospitals will be overcrowded, because modern man is an established predator.

Unfortunately, the A (II) blood group diet does not draw the attention of those interested in the fact that people with this antigenic composition of erythrocytes make up the majority of the number of patients. ischemic disease heart (CHD), thrombophilia, rheumatism. They happen more often than others myocardial infarctions. So, maybe a person should work in this direction? Or at least bear in mind the risk of such problems?

• The carriers of the third blood group were the luckiest of all: they are recognized as "nomads", and therefore omnivores. That's right, they need to eat very well, because, despite the high immunity from nature, their risk of contracting tuberculosis is much higher than that of other members of the human population.
• A diet for blood group AB (IV), containing both A and B, is recommended moderately mixed, that is, as they say, a little bit of everything, because the omnivorous "nomads" and the vegetarianism of "farmers" open up broad prospects in terms of diversity, but narrow the possibilities in sense of volume. We can only note that the owners of group AB (IV) due to the presence of antigen A also need to be aware of the risk of coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction.

Food for thought

An interesting question is when should a person switch to the recommended blood type diet? From birth? During puberty? In the golden years of youth? Or when old age knocks? Here the right to choose, we just want to remind you that children and adolescents should not be deprived of the necessary trace elements and vitamins, one should not be preferred and the other ignored.

Young people love something, they don’t like something, but if healthy man is ready, only having crossed the age of majority, to follow all the recommendations in nutrition in accordance with group affiliation, then this is his right. I just want to note that, in addition to the antigens of the AB0 system, there are other antigenic phenotypes that exist in parallel, but also contribute to the life of the human body. Should they be ignored or kept in mind? Then they also need to develop diets and it’s not a fact that they will coincide with the current trends that promote healthy eating for certain categories of people who have one or another group affiliation. For example, the HLA leukocyte system is more than others associated with various diseases; it can be used to calculate in advance the hereditary predisposition to a particular pathology. So why not do just that, more real prevention immediately with the help of food?

Video: the secrets of human blood groups

Please tell me! Everywhere it is indicated that if both parents have 1 group, the child will be 100% with the first group. Why do I have 2 positive? Both parents have exactly 1, I'm not 100% adopted. And they didn’t work up, so to speak, me (also impossible), so what is the reason ??

Hello! Parents with the first blood group will have children only with the first, no other groups are possible. If you have a second one, then, perhaps, one of the parents or you was identified incorrectly. An error in analysis is the only reason for this situation, provided that both parents are your biological father and mother.

Types of blood groups:

There are 4 blood groups: OI, AII, BIII, ABIV. Group features of human blood are constant sign, are inherited, occur in the prenatal period and do not change during life or under the influence of diseases.

It was found that the agglutination reaction occurs when antigens of one blood group (they are called agglutinogens) that are in red blood cells - red blood cells with antibodies of another group (they are called agglutinins) that are in plasma - the liquid part of the blood. The division of blood according to the AB0 system into four groups is based on the fact that the blood may or may not contain antigens (agglutinogens) A and B, as well as antibodies (agglutinins) α (alpha or anti-A) and β (beta or anti-B) .

First blood group - 0 (I)

Group I - does not contain agglutinogens (antigens), but contains agglutinins (antibodies) α and β. It is denoted 0 (I). Since this group does not contain foreign particles (antigens), it can be transfused to all people. A person with this blood type is a universal donor.

It is believed that this is the oldest blood type or group of "hunters", which arose between 60,000 and 40,000 years BC, in the era of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, who only knew how to gather food and hunt. People with the first blood group have the inherent qualities of a leader.

Second blood type A β (II)

Group II contains agglutinogen (antigen) A and agglutinin β (antibodies to agglutinogen B). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen B - these are groups I and II.

This group appeared later than the first, between 25,000 and 15,000 BC, when man began to master agriculture. There are especially many people with the second blood group in Europe. It is believed that people with this blood type are also prone to leadership, but are more flexible in communicating with others than people with the first blood type.

Third blood type Вα (III)

Group III contains agglutinogen (antigen) B and agglutinin α (antibodies to agglutinogen A). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen A - this is I and Group III.

The third group appeared around 15,000 BC, when man began to settle in the more northerly cold regions. For the first time this blood type appeared in the Mongoloid race. Over time, the carriers of the group began to move to the European continent. And today there are a lot of people with such blood in Asia and Eastern Europe. People with this blood type are usually patient and very diligent.

Fourth blood type AB0 (IV)

IV blood group contains agglutinogens (antigens) A and B, but contains agglutinins (antibodies). Therefore, it can only be transfused to those who have the same fourth blood group. But, since there are no antibodies in the blood of such people that can stick together with antibodies introduced from the outside, they can be transfused with blood of any group. People with the fourth blood group are universal recipients.

The fourth group is the newest of the four human blood types. It appeared less than 1000 years ago as a result of a mixture of Indo-Europeans, carriers of group I and Mongoloids, carriers of group III. She is rare.

In the blood group There are no OI agglutinogens, both agglutinins are present, the serological formula of this group is OI; blood of the AN group contains agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta, serological formula - AII; blood of the VS group contains agglutinogen B and agglutinin alpha, serological formula - VIII; blood of the ABIV group contains agglutinogens A and B, there are no agglutinins, the serological formula is ABIV.

under agglutination we mean the agglutination of red blood cells and their destruction. “Agglutination (the late Latin word aglutinatio - gluing) is the gluing and precipitation of corpuscular particles - bacteria, erythrocytes, platelets, tissue cells, corpuscular chemically active particles with antigens or antibodies adsorbed on them, suspended in an electrolyte environment”

Blood type(phenotype) is inherited according to the laws of genetics and is determined by a set of genes (genotype) obtained with the maternal and paternal chromosomes. A person can only have those blood antigens that his parents have. The inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system is determined by three genes - A, B and O. Each chromosome can have only one gene, so the child receives only two genes from the parents (one from the mother, the other from the father), which cause the appearance of two antigens of the ABO system. On fig. 2 shows the scheme of inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system.

blood antigens appear on the 2-3rd month of intrauterine life and are well defined by the birth of a child. Natural antibodies are detected from the 3rd month after birth and reach the maximum titer by 5-10 years.

The scheme of inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system

It may seem strange that blood type can determine how well the body absorbs certain foods, however, medicine confirms the fact that there are diseases that are most common in people of a certain blood type.

The method of nutrition by blood types was developed by the American doctor Peter D "Adamo. According to his theory, the digestibility of food, the efficiency of its use by the body is directly related to the genetic characteristics of a person, to his blood group. For the normal functioning of the immune and digestive systems, a person needs to eat foods that correspond to his blood group.In other words, those products that his ancestors ate in ancient times.The exclusion from the diet of substances incompatible with blood reduces the slagging of the body, improves the functioning of internal organs.

Types of activities depending on blood types

The results of the study of blood groups thus act among other evidence of "blood relationship" and once again confirm the thesis of a single origin of the human race.

Different groups appeared in humans as a result of mutations. Mutations are spontaneous changes in hereditary material that decisively affect the ability of a living being to survive. Man as a whole is the result of innumerable mutations. The fact that man still exists testifies to the fact that at all times he was able to adapt to environment and give offspring. The formation of blood groups also occurred in the form of mutations and natural selection.

The emergence of racial differences is associated with the successes in the field of production achieved during the period of the Middle and New Stone Age (Mesolithic and Neolithic); these successes made possible the wide territorial settlement of people in various climatic zones. A variety of climatic conditions thus affected various groups of people, changing them directly or indirectly and influencing the work capacity of a person. Social labor gained more and more weight in comparison with natural conditions, and each race was formed in a limited area, under the specific influence of natural and social conditions. Thus, the interweaving of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the development of the material culture of that time recognized the emergence of racial differences in people under conditions when the environment dominated man.

Since the Stone Age period, thanks to further advances in the field of production, people have to a certain extent freed themselves from the direct influence of the environment. They mingled and roamed together. Therefore, modern conditions of life often no longer have any connection with the various racial constitutions of human groups. In addition, the adaptation to environmental conditions discussed above was indirect in many respects. Direct consequences of adaptation to the environment led to further modifications, which were both morphologically and physiologically related to the first. The cause of the emergence of racial characteristics should therefore only indirectly be sought in the external environment or in human activity in the process of production.

Blood type I (0) - hunter

The evolution of the digestive systems and immune defense of the body lasted several tens of thousands of years. About 40,000 years ago, at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthals gave way to the fossil types of modern man. The most common of these was Cro-Magnon (from the name of the Cro-Magnon grotto in the Dordogne, Southern France), which was distinguished by pronounced Caucasoid features. In fact, in the era of the Upper Paleolithic, all three modern large races arose: Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid. According to the theory of the Pole Ludwik Hirstsfeld, fossil people of all three races had the same blood type - 0 (I), and all other blood types were isolated by mutation from the "first blood" of our primitive ancestors. The Cro-Magnons perfected the collective methods of hunting mammoths and cave bears known to their Neanderthal predecessors. Over time, man has become the smartest and most dangerous predator in nature. The main source of energy for Cro-Magnon hunters was meat, that is, animal protein. The digestive tract of the Cro-Magnon was best adapted to digesting huge amounts of meat - this is why modern man has 0-type acidity gastric juice slightly higher than in people with other blood groups. The Cro-Magnons were strong and resilient. immune system, allowing them to easily cope with almost any infection. If average duration The life of the Neanderthals averaged twenty-one years, the Cro-Magnons lived much longer. In the harsh conditions of primitive life, only the strongest and most mobile individuals could survive and survived. Each of the blood types encoded at the gene level the most important information about the way of life of our ancestors, including muscle activity and, for example, the type of food. That is why modern carriers of blood type 0 (I) (currently up to 40% of the world's population belong to the 0-type) prefer to engage in aggressive and extreme sports!

Blood type II (A) - agrarian (tiller)

By the end of the Ice Age, the Paleolithic era was replaced by the Mesolithic. The so-called "Middle Stone Age" lasted from the 14th-12th to the 6th-5th millennium BC. Population growth and the inevitable extermination of large animals led to the fact that hunting could no longer feed people. Another crisis in the history of human civilization contributed to the development of agriculture and the transition to a stable settled way of life. The global change in lifestyle and, as a result, the type of nutrition entailed the further evolution of the digestive and immune systems. Once again, the fittest survived. In conditions of crowding and living in an agrarian community, only one whose immune apparatus was able to cope with infections characteristic of a communal lifestyle could survive. Along with the further restructuring of the digestive tract, when the main source of energy was not animal, but vegetable protein, all this led to the emergence of the "agrarian-vegetarian" blood group A (II). The great migration of Indo-European peoples to Europe has led to the fact that people of the A-type predominate in Western Europe at present. Unlike aggressive "hunters" the owners of blood group A (II) are more adapted to survival in densely populated regions. Over time, the A gene became, if not a sign of a typical urban dweller, then a guarantee of survival during epidemics of plague and cholera, which at one time mowed down half of Europe (according to the latest research by European immunologists, after medieval pandemics, mainly A-type people survived). The ability and need to coexist with their own kind, less aggressiveness, greater contact, that is, everything that we call the socio-psychological stability of the individual, is inherent in the owners of the A (II) blood type, again at the gene level. That is why the vast majority of A-type people prefer to engage in intellectual sports, and choosing one of the styles of martial arts, they will give preference not to karate, but, say, aikido.

Blood type III (B) - barbarian (nomad)

It is believed that the ancestral home of the B gene is located in the foothills of the Western Himalayas in what is now India and Pakistan. The migration of agricultural and pastoral tribes from East Africa and the expansion of the warlike Mongoloid nomads to the north and northeast of Europe led to the widespread distribution and penetration of the B gene into many, primarily Eastern European, populations. The domestication of the horse and the invention of the wagon made the nomads especially mobile, and the colossal population even for those times allowed them to dominate the endless steppes of Eurasia from Mongolia and the Urals to present-day East Germany for many millennia. The mode of production cultivated for centuries, mainly cattle-breeding, predetermined a special evolution not only digestive system(unlike 0- and A-types, milk and dairy products are considered no less important in B-type people than meat products), but also psychology. Severe climatic conditions left a special imprint on the Asian character. Patience, purposefulness and imperturbability up to the present day are considered in the East almost the main virtues. Apparently, this can explain the outstanding success of Asians in some sports of medium intensity, which require the development of special endurance, such as badminton or table tennis.

Blood type IV (AB) - mixed (modern)

The AB (IV) blood group arose as a result of the mixing of Indo-Europeans - owners of the A gene and barbarian nomads - carriers of the B gene. To date, only 6% of Europeans are registered with the AB blood group, which is considered the youngest in the ABO system. A geochemical analysis of bone remains from various burials on the territory of modern Europe convincingly proves that as early as the 8th-9th centuries AD, there was no mass mixing of groups A and B, and the first any serious contacts between representatives of the above groups took place during the period of mass migration from the East to the Central Europe and dates back to the X-XI centuries. The unique blood type AB (IV) lies in the fact that its carriers have inherited the immunological resistance of both groups. AV-type is extremely resistant to various kinds of autoimmune and allergic diseases, however, some hematologists and immunologists believe that mixed marriage increases the predisposition of AB-type people to a number of oncological diseases (if parents are A-B-types, then the probability of having a child with blood type AB is approximately 25%). The mixed blood type is characterized by mixed type food, and the "barbaric" component requires meat, and the "agrarian" roots and low acidity - vegetarian dishes! The reaction to stress of the AB type is similar to that demonstrated by the owners of blood group A, therefore their sports preferences, in principle, coincide, that is, they usually achieve the greatest success in intellectual and meditative sports, as well as in swimming, mountain tourism and cycling.

If you are interested in the relationship between blood types and body characteristics, we recommend that you read the article.

K. Landsteiner showed the presence of two types of agglutinogens (antigens) in the blood erythrocytes of some people and designated them in Latin letters A and B. In those people who did not have these antigens, the blood plasma contained, however, congenital antibodies to them. This explained why the transfusion of blood from one person to another often led to transfusion shock. This happened if erythrocytes containing A or B antigens were injected into people who had antibodies to them in the body. Landsteiner called innate antibodies (agglutinins) against A antigens α-agglutinins, antibodies against B antigens - β-agglutinins. Thus, during blood transfusion, it is necessary to prevent the formation of A-antigen-α-antibody and B-antigen-β-antibody pairs, which are called the same name. As a result, K. Landsteiner identified 4 blood groups, differing in the content of agglutinogens (antigens A and B) and agglutinins (antibodies α and β). Group I is blood, in the erythrocytes of which there are neither A nor B agglutinogens, therefore it is also called zero, and the plasma contains α and β agglutinins. Over 40% of Caucasians have this blood type. Group II is blood containing agglutinogen A in erythrocytes, therefore it is also called A group, and in plasma β agglutinins. About 40% of people have such blood. The erythrocytes of the III blood group contain B agglutinogens, therefore it is also called the B group, and in the plasma - α agglutinins. About 10% of Europeans have such blood. Finally, group IV erythrocytes contain both A and B agglutinogens, and there are no agglutinins in plasma. This blood, also called the AB group, is found in only less than 6% of people. For the discovery of blood groups in 1940, K. Landsteiner received the Nobel Prize. Later, the same Landsteiner, as well as Wiener, found other antigens in human erythrocytes, designated as C, D and E. Blood containing these agglutinogens is called Rh-positive (Rh +). Approximately 85% of people have Rh-positive blood. The rest of the blood is called Rh-negative (Rh-). Congenital antibodies in humans to these antigens do not occur, however, they are produced by the immune system if people who do not have the Rh factor are transfused with blood containing it in red blood cells. With repeated transfusion of Rh-negative people with Rh-positive blood, a picture close to hemotransfusion shock will develop. After that it was opened a large number of agglutinogens (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, Az, A0, M, N, S, P, Di, Ln, Le, Fy, Yt, Xg and others, more than 200 in total), the presence or absence of which must often be taken into account during blood transfusion. Therefore, at present, the doctrine of blood groups has become much more complicated. According to modern data, the blood of each person according to the antigenic set is unique and unrepeatable, therefore, by and large, there are as many blood groups as there are people on Earth.