Signs of a diagnostic examination. The scope of psychodiagnostics and its main tasks
Senior educator: Reshetnikova A.O.
The main goal of diagnosing is to obtain not so much qualitatively new results as operational information about the real state and trends in the object of diagnosis in order to correct the pedagogical process.
Common diagnostic features are:
- the presence of goals of pedagogical assessment of the state of the diagnosed object;
- systematic and repeatable diagnosis as a type of professional pedagogical activity carried out in typical situations at certain stages of the pedagogical process (introductory diagnosis, intermediate diagnosis, final, etc.);
- the use of techniques specially developed and (or) adapted to these specific situations and conditions;
- availability of procedures for their implementation by educators.
When conducting a diagnostic examination, it is necessary to be guided by the following principles.
The principle of consistency and continuity of diagnostics is manifested in a consistent transition from one stage, criteria and forms and methods of diagnostics to others as the individual develops, learns and educates in the educational process, in a gradual complication and deepening of the diagnostic process.
The principle of accessibility of diagnostic methods and procedures - the general pedagogical principles of visibility and accessibility of training in relation to the tasks of diagnostic study of pupils mean the need for such a selection (construction) of methods, questions, tasks that would be designed for the real level of development of children, their experience. Visual clarity of tasks of a practical nature becomes the main condition for obtaining the necessary information (tests with pictures).
The availability of diagnostics requires the creation of natural conditions for diagnosing, which just stimulates the naturalness of behavior.
Among the specific principles of pedagogical diagnostics, the predictive value of diagnostics is singled out. It manifests itself in the orientation of diagnostic activity to corrective work in the "zone of proximal development" of preschoolers.
Note that the concept of “zone of proximal development” was introduced by L. S. Vygotsky: “It is not so much what the child has already learned that is important, but what he is able to learn, and the zone of proximal development determines what the child’s capabilities are in terms of mastering what he does not yet possess, but can master with the help, at the direction of adults, in cooperation.
In addition to principles, it is important to adhere to general recommendations.
During the diagnostic examination, it is important to maintain a trusting, friendly atmosphere: do not express your dissatisfaction with the wrong actions of children, do not point out mistakes, do not make value judgments, more often say the words: “Very good!”, “You are great!”, “I see you're doing great."
The duration of an individual examination should not exceed 15 minutes.
When developing diagnostic procedure and the selection of diagnostic tools, the cost-effectiveness and reliability of the methods, their compliance with the age characteristics of children and the possibility of being included in the educational process of the kindergarten were taken into account.
As the main methods to identify the degree of implementation of the program and assess the level of development of children, observations of children, the study of the products of their activities (drawings, applications), simple experiments (in the form of separate instructions for the child, conducting didactic games etc.), conversations.
Regular observations make it possible to fairly objectively assess the achievements of the child inherent in age (mastery of certain methods; mental actions, the level of mastery of knowledge).
However, when observing, difficulties may arise, one of them is the subjectivity of the observer. Therefore, in order to avoid mistakes, premature conclusions should be abandoned, observations should be continued as far as possible, long time and only then proceed to the analysis of the results.
Observations of the child should take place in a natural situation: in a group, on a walk, when coming to Kindergarten and leaving it.
A prerequisite for the successful conduct of pedagogical diagnostics is the transition of the teacher from the position of the teacher to the position of the person conducting the diagnostics. This inevitably entails a change in its activities. If in the process of everyday work the main goal of the teacher is to give knowledge, to achieve the correct answer at the moment, to educate, then in the process of conducting diagnostics it is to obtain reliable data on the level of development of the child, the formation of certain skills.
The proposed tasks are compiled with the maximum consideration of the characteristics and capabilities of children of primary preschool age, their real experience, which ensures an adequate understanding of their content by children.
WAYS TO WORK WITH DIAGNOSTIC CARDS
The results of the diagnostic examination of each child are recorded in the diagnostic table. The vertical axis shows the names of the children and the scores for completing each task. On the horizontal - numbers of diagnostic tasks.
The purpose of this work is to develop a system complex diagnostics children of preschool age, which will allow to qualitatively and quickly assess the dynamics of readiness of children of preschool age, as well as to qualitatively assess the effectiveness of the educational work of children's educational institutions in terms of the "final valuable product" - a preschool graduate.
Diagnostic cards guide the educator to a certain, very approximate, average rate of development of the child. There are no standard children, and diagnostic cards can only be a guide on the way to understanding the characteristics of the child, his individuality.
Diagnostic results are starting points individual educational routes for each child.
Diagnostic value of examination Choice of diagnostic intervals. Diagnostic value of simultaneous examination by a set of features. We will call a simple sign the result of the survey, which can be expressed by one of two characters or a binary number, for example, 1 and 0; Yes and no; and. In this regard, the result of a quantitative survey can be considered as a sign that takes on several possible states.
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Lecture 1 6
Topic. Diagnostic value of signs
Target. Give an idea aboutdiagnostic value of signs.
Educational. Explain feature values at diagnostics.
Developing. Develop logical thinking and natural - scientific worldview.
Educational . Raise interest in scientific achievements and discoveries in the telecommunications industry.
Interdisciplinary connections:
Providing: computer science, mathematics, computer engineering and MT, programming systems.
Provided: Internship
Methodological support and equipment:
Methodical development to occupation.
Academic plan.
Training program
Working programm.
Safety briefing.
Technical teaching aids: personal computer.
Providing jobs:
Workbooks
Lecture progress.
Organizing time.
Analysis and verification homework
Answer the questions:
What is entropy?
What requirements did Claude Chenon set for the measurement of information?
How are entropy and channel capacity related?
Lead m athematic properties of entropy.
What is the efficiency of the original alphabet?
What is first order conditional entropy?
What is the purpose of mutual entropy orunion entropy?
What is the entropy of a complex system ?
What is a meaningful approach to change?
Give Hartley's formula. Explain it.
Give Hartley's formula.
What is the basis of the alphabetical approach, what is the power of the alphabet?
What is information on Shannon?
What is the amount of information, measure measure?
Give a definition of the information volume of the message, what approaches are distinguished in this case?
What measures of information are distinguished within the framework of a structural approach tomeasuring information?
What determines the geometric measure of information measurement?
What determines the combinatorialmeasure of information?
What determines the additive measure of information measurement?
What determines the amount of information in a message?
What is the bulk method of transmission based onsequences of signs, signals?
What is in information theorycalled the amount of information?
What approaches to measuring information do you know?
What is the basic unit of measurement for information?
How many bytes contains 1 KB of information?
Give a formula for calculating the amount of information while reducing the uncertainty of knowledge.
Lecture plan
- Simple and complex features and their diagnostic weights
- The choice of the value of diagnostic intervals. Diagnostic value of simultaneous examination by a set of features.
- Required amount of information. Optimality conditions.
DIAGNOSTIC VALUE OF FEATURES
Introductory remarks.In technical diagnostics importance has a description of the object in the system of features of great diagnostic value. The use of non-informative features not only turns out to be useless, but also reduces the efficiency of the diagnostic process itself, creating interference in recognition.
The quantitative determination of the diagnostic value of signs and complexes of signs can be carried out on the basis of information theory.The attribute is determined by the information that the attribute contributes to the system of states.
Simple and complex signs and their diagnostic weights.
Simple and complex signs.Let there be a system Dn which is located in one of P possible states Di (i = 12, . . ., P). Let us now agree to call this system a “system of diagnoses”, and each of the states a diagnosis. In most cases continuous various states systems are represented as a set of standards (diagnoses), and the choice of the number of diagnoses is often determined by the objectives of the study. Recognition of system states D is carried out by observing another system associated with it, a system of signs.
We will call a simple signtest result, which can be one of two characters or a binary number (e.g. 1 and 0; yes and no; + and).
From the point of view of information theory, a simple attribute can be considered as a system that has one of two possible states. If a kj a simple sign, then we will denote its two states: kj the presence of a sign; kj absence of a sign. A simple sign can mean the presence or absence of a measured parameter in a certain interval, he may also be of a qualitative nature (for example, a positive or negative test result, etc.).
For the purposes of diagnostics, the range of possible values of the measured parameter is often divided into intervals, and the presence of a parameter in this interval is characteristic. In this regard, the result of a quantitative survey can be considered asa sign that takes several possible states.
Let us agree to call a complex sign (of the category m) the result of an observation (survey), which can be expressed by one of m symbols. If, as usual, digits are chosen as symbols, then a complex sign (of the m category) can be expressed m -bit number (for example, a complex feature of the 8th digit is expressed as an octal number). A complex sign can also be associated with a qualitative survey if the assessment contains several gradations [for example, noise (increased, normal, weak) three-digit sign]. The attribute digits will often be called diagnostic intervals.
Let's take a look at some of the signs.
Single-digit sign (t= 1) has only one possible state. Such a sign does not carry any diagnostic information and should be excluded from consideration.
Two-digit sign (t= 2) has two possible states. States of a two-digit sign kj can be designated kj 1 and k j 2 . Let, for example, the sign kj refers to parameter measurement X, for which two diagnostic intervals are set: X< 10 и х >10. Then k j 1 corresponds to x ≤ 10, and kj 2 means x > 10.
These states are alternative since only one of them is implemented. It is obvious that the two-digit sign can be replaced by a simple sign k j if we put k j 1 = kj and k j 2 = kj . This simple sign can be formulated as follows: a reduced value of the parameter X.
Three-digit sign (t =3) has three possible values: kj l kj 2 k j 3 . Let, for example, for the parameter x Three diagnostic intervals are accepted:<5; 515; >15. Then for the gphysnak kj , characterizing this parameter, three values are possible:
x≤5 5< x <15 x ≥15
t-bit sign k . has t possible states: k i
Diagnostic weights of features.
If the examination reveals that the kj has a value for the given object k jS then this value will be called the implementation of the feature kj . Denoting it k * j , we will have k * j = k js .
As diagnostic weightfeature implementation kj for the diagnosis Di we accept
(19.1)
where P (Di / kj S ) probability of diagnosis Di provided that the sign kj got a value k js ; P (D i ) a priori probability of diagnosis.
ZD value. (k JS ) names c i values oh the value of information.
Table 9 The probabilities of overload occurrence,%
From the table it follows, for example, that 10% of serviceable engines have an overload of more than 2.5 g.
Based on statistical data, 80% of objects are in good condition (for the resource in question) and 20% are in fault. The magnitude of the overload is a sign kj having three intervals. For example, P (kj 3) \u003d P (D 1) X P (kj 3 / D 1 + P (D 2) P (k j 3 / D 2) \u003d 0.8 * 0.1 + 0.2 * 0.7 \u003d 0.22.
The diagnostic weights of the feature intervals will be as follows:
Note that the diagnostic weight of the second interval is zero. This is clear from physical considerations: from the condition that the vibration overload is in the range from 1.5 to 2.5 g , it is impossible to draw a conclusion about the state of the object.
The diagnostic weight of the first interval for a faulty state is equal to oo, which denies (according to statistical data) the possibility of a faulty state.
Communication of diagnostic weights of implementations of a simple feature.
Simple feature k f can have two implementations: kj 1 = kj , kj 2 = kj . In this regard, we can talk about the presence or absence of a sign kj . Diagnostic weight of the presence of a trait kj for diagnosis D t
(19.3)
Diagnostic weight of the absence of a sign
(19.4)
Since there are obvious relations 
(19.5)
(19.6)
then
(19.7)
From formula (19.7) it follows that
always have different signs.
Note that if the sign k is random for this diagnosis, then both diagnostic weights are equal to zero.
Conditional and independent diagnostic weights.
Equalities (19.1) and (19.2) determine the independent diagnostic weight of a given trait realization for the diagnosis D. It is typical for a situation in which a survey on the basis of kf carried out first or when the results of the examination for other characteristics are not yet known (for example, when simultaneously examined for several characteristics). It is also characteristic of the case when the probability of occurrence of a given trait realization does not depend on the results of previous surveys.
However, it is known that the diagnostic value of the realization of a trait in many cases depends on what realizations of the traits were obtained in previous examinations. It happens that a sign in itself is not significant, but its appearance after some other one allows you to unambiguously make a diagnosis (establish the state of the system).
Let the survey be carried out first on the basis of k 1 and then on the basis k2. When examining an object on the basis of to g realization was received k ls , and it is required to determine the diagnostic weight of the implementation k 2 p feature k 2 for diagnosis D. In accordance with the definition of diagnostic weight
(19.8)
Formula (19.8) definesconditional diagnosticfeature implementation weight.
Independent diagnostic weight this implementation
(19.9)
If features k 1 b k 2 are independent for the entire set of objects with different diagnoses
and conditionally independent for objects with the diagnosis Dt then the conditional and independent diagnostic weights of the implementation coincide.
Diagnostic weight of the implementation of a set of features.
Consider the diagnostic weight of implementations of the feature complex K , consisting of a sign k 1 with realizations of k ls and feature K 2 with realizations of k 2р . There are two options for conducting a survey on a set of signs:consistent and parallel.
In a sequential (step-by-step) examination, first on the basis of K 1 and then by feature K 2 we get that diagnostic weights match.
The diagnostic weight of the implementation of a set of features does not depend on the order of the examination.
Note that the concept of the diagnostic weight of the feature realization is applicable only in relation to a given diagnosis, as the degree of its confirmation or denial. Averaging the diagnostic weight over all realizations of the trait and over all diagnoses leads to the concept of informative or diagnostic value of the examination.
Diagnostic value of the examination
Private diagnostic value of the survey.The diagnostic weight of one or another implementation of a trait does not yet give an idea of the diagnostic value of an examination for this trait. For example, when examining a simple sign, it may turn out that its presence does not have diagnostic weight, while its absence is extremely important for establishing a diagnosis.
Let us agree to consider the diagnostic value of the survey on the basis of kj for diagnosis D t the amount of information contributed by all implementations of the feature kj in establishing a diagnosis D. For m - bit sign
(20.1)
The diagnostic value of the survey takes into account all possible implementations of the trait and is the mathematical expectation of the amount of information contributed by individual implementations. Since the value Z D (kj ) refers to only one diagnosis D then we will call it the private diagnostic value of the survey on the basis of kj .
It should also be noted that Zd(kj) determines the independent diagnostic value of the examination. It is characteristic of the case when the survey is carried out first or when the results of other surveys are unknown. Value Z D . (kj) can be written in three equivalent forms:
If sign kj is incidental to the diagnosis D then examination on this basis has no diagnostic value(Z Di (k f )=0).
The greatest diagnostic value are surveys on signs that are often found in this diagnosis, but rarely in general, and, conversely, according to signs that are rare in this diagnosis, but in general often. When matched P (kj / Dj ) and P (kj ) examination has no diagnostic value. These conclusions are consistent with the intuitive rules used in practice, but now these rules are accurately quantified.
The diagnostic value of the examination is calculated in units of information (binary units or bits) and cannot be a negative value. The latter is understandable from logical considerations: the information obtained during the examination cannot “worse” the process of recognizing the actual state.
The choice of the value of diagnostic intervals.
The value of Z Di (kj ) can be used not only to assess the effectiveness of the examination, but also to make an appropriate choice of the value of diagnostic intervals (number of discharges). Obviously, to simplify the analysis, it is convenient to reduce the number of diagnostic intervals, but this can lead to a decrease in the diagnostic value of the examination.
With an increase in the number of diagnostic intervals, the diagnostic value of a trait increases or remains the same, but the analysis of the results becomes more laborious. It should be borne in mind that an increase in the number of diagnostic intervals often requires the involvement of additional statistical material in order to obtain the necessary reliability of the value of the probabilities of the intervals.
The overall diagnostic value of the examination.It is known that a survey that has little diagnostic value for one diagnosis may be of significant value for another.
Diagnostic value of simultaneous examination by a set of signs.
The diagnostic value of a survey based on a set of features for the entire system of diagnoses is measured by the amount of information entered by the systems. to 1 and to 2 in the system D :
(21.1)
where H(D) a priori entropy of the system of diagnoses; H (D / k 1 k 2) the expected entropy of the system of diagnoses after examination by signs k 1 and k 2 .
Building an optimal diagnostic process
Required amount of information.In diagnostic tasks, the choice of the most informative features for describing an object is extremely important. In many cases, this is due to the difficulty of obtaining the information itself (the number of sensors characterizing the working process of the machine is, of necessity, very limited). In other cases, the time and cost of a diagnostic examination, etc., matter.
From a theoretical point of view, the process of diagnostic examination can be represented as follows. There is a system that can be with some probability in one of the states unknown in advance. If the prior probabilities of the states P (D ) can be obtained from statistical data, then the entropy of the system
(23.1)
As a result of a complete diagnostic examination for a set of signs To the state of the system becomes known (for example, it turns out that the system is in the state D 1 then Р (D 1) = 1, Р (Di) = 0 (i = 2, . . ., n ). After a complete diagnostic examination, the entropy (uncertainty) of the system
H (D / K ) = 0. (23.2)
The entered information contained in the diagnostic examination, or the diagnostic value of the examination
J D (K) \u003d Z D (K) \u003d H (D) - H (D / K) \u003d H (D). (23.3)
In reality, condition (23.2) is far from always satisfied. In many cases, recognition is statistical in nature and it is necessary to know that the probability of one of the states is quite high [for example, P(D 1)=0.95]. For such situations, the "residual" entropy of the system H (D / K) ≠ 0.
In practical cases, the necessary diagnostic value of the examination
(23.4)
where ξ examination completeness coefficient, 0< ξ < 1.
Coefficient ξ depends on the reliability of recognition and for real diagnostic processes should be close to unity. If a priori probabilities of system states are unknown, then it is always possible to give an upper estimate of the entropy of the system
, (23.5)
where p number of system states.
Condition (23.4) implies thatthe amount of information that needs to be obtained during a diagnostic examination is a given one and it is required to build an optimal process for its accumulation.
Optimal conditions.When constructing a diagnostic process, one should take into account the complexity of obtaining relevant information. Let's call the coefficient of optimality of diagnostic examination on the basis of k f for diagnosis Di value
(23.6)
where Z D . (kj) diagnostic value of the survey on the basis of k 1 for diagnosis D . In general
Z Di (kj ) determined taking into account the results of previous surveys;
c if the coefficient of complexity of the survey on the basis of k) for diagnosis D characterizing the complexity and cost of the survey, its reliability, duration and other factors. It is assumed that c if independent of previous surveys.
Examination optimality coefficient for the entire system of diagnoses
(23.7)
The optimality coefficient will be the largest if the required value of diagnostic value is obtained with the smallest number of individual examinations. In the general case, the optimal diagnostic process should provide the highest value of the optimality coefficient of the entire examination (optimality condition for the diagnostic examination).
Homework: § abstract.
Fixing the material:
Questions for self-control
- What is called a simple sign?
- What is called difficult s sign?
- What does the use ofnon-informative signs
- Explain how a simple sign is denoted.
- What is a complex feature?
- One-digit Two-digit Three-digit signs define them.
- What is the diagnostic value of the examination, how is it calculated?
- What should be done to simplify the analysis on the interval?
- How is the diagnostic value of an examination based on a set of signs measured for the entire system of diagnoses?
- What is the reason for choosing the most informative features to describe an object?
- Give a description of the optimality factor.
Literature:
Amrenov S. A. "Methods for monitoring and diagnosing systems and communication networks" LECTURE SUMMARY -: Astana, Kazakh State Agrotechnical University, 2005
I.G. Baklanov Testing and diagnostics of communication systems. - M.: Eco-Trends, 2001. Page 221-254
Birger I. A. Technical diagnostics. M .: "Engineering", 1978. 240, p.
Aripov M.N., Dzhuraev R.Kh., Jabbarov Sh.Yu."TECHNICAL DIAGNOSIS OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS" - Tashkent, TEIS, 2005
Platonov Yu. M., Utkin Yu. G.Diagnostics, repair and prevention of personal computers. -M.: Hotline - Telecom, 2003.-312 s: ill.
M.E. Bushueva, V.V. BelyakovDiagnostics of complex technical systems Proceedings of the 1st meeting of the NATO project SfP-973799 Semiconductors. Nizhny Novgorod, 2001
Malyshenko Yu.V. TECHNICAL DIAGNOSIS part I lecture notes
Platonov Yu. M., Utkin Yu. G.Diagnosis of freezing and computer malfunctions / Series "Technomir". Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 2001. 320 p.
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A set of organizational and engineering measures designed to determine the technical condition of gas pipelines, gas equipment (technical products) after the estimated service life ... Construction terminology
The concept of diagnostics. This definition is, in our opinion, universal in nature and fully characterizes diagnostics in the management of material flows. In this case, diagnostics is aimed at establishing and studying signs, assessing the internal state of material flow management and identifying problems in the effective functioning and development of the management system, as well as forming ways to solve them.
From a technical point of view, diagnostics allows you to identify problems caused by the structure of the logistics system, the characteristics of the external environment and the nature of interaction with the external environment. On the economic side, diagnostics captures deviations from the norm of parameters that determine the effective functioning of the production and marketing system.
Diagnostics, using the results of an operational analysis of the state of the controlled system and its environment, serves to justify decisions on the organization and regulation of material flows, and also provides information for planning the development of the logistics system. Analysis is the first stage of a diagnostic study and allows you to compare and select effective solutions for the development of a material flow management system, identify the causes of failures in management and the conditions for their elimination.
Diagnostics allows to solve the following set of tasks:
Establish the state of the material flow management system, its compliance or non-compliance with the standards determined by the needs of practical activities;
Identify logical cause-and-effect schemes that explain the dependence of the efficiency of the logistics system on the qualitative and quantitative composition of its elements and structure, as well as the state of the environment in which the enterprise operates;
Systematize and describe the reasons causing violations in the material flow management system;
Determine the possible states of this system based on the current and future structure of the connections of its elements;
Assess the possible consequences of managerial decisions in terms of the effectiveness of the system as a whole.
Principles of diagnostic studies. The basis for the organization of diagnostic studies should be the principles, the implementation of which will ensure an increase in the efficiency of the work being done. These include the principle of a key link, consistency, causal correspondence.
Key link principle. The material flow management system is one of the complex systems. Organizational and economic processes occurring in it are formed under the influence of many factors. It is practically impossible to take into account and study them all; it is necessary to choose the decisive, most significant ones from them.
The identification of key problems and the main causes that determine the problem situation is one of the principles of diagnostic research. This principle is achieved by decomposing the functions and goals of the logistics system, classifying problems, prioritizing individual factors in assessing problems.
The principle of consistency . Consistency in a diagnostic study means a comprehensive and interconnected study of the problems of the control system and the identification of all the consequences and interconnections of each particular solution to the problem. In accordance with this principle, the program for improving the material flow management system and the inclusion of measures to eliminate individual particular problems in it should be evaluated from the point of view of the effectiveness of the functioning of the entire material flow management system as a whole, in order to exclude the possibility of unexpected and unforeseen consequences.
Principle of Causal Correspondence. One of the requirements for diagnostics is the knowledge of the causes of disturbances in the system and deviations from the norm of its parameters.
Symptoms of problems and their causes do not always and necessarily coincide. Thus, a common symptom such as untimely and incomplete provision of production with quality materials can be due to many factors, for example, financial difficulties, disruption of transportation routes, changes in technology, etc. Therefore, a cause-and-effect analysis is necessary. Diagnostics is designed to dissect the object in statics and spatio-temporal context, highlight cause-and-effect relationships and determine their purposefulness.
The study of the causes of violations of the normal state of the control system, as a way of solving emerging problems, in which the analyst's attention is focused on the study of cause-and-effect relationships, is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of a diagnostic study and is defined as the principle of cause-and-effect correspondence.
Express diagnostics and identification of signs of a problem. Formulating and diagnosing the problem Choosing options for solving the problem
The diagnostic process involves identifying problems (causes of deviations from the normal state of the system) and determining ways to resolve them in accordance with the requirements of the environment.
The main phases of this process are:
Express diagnostics and identification of signs of problems;
Formulation and diagnosis of the problem;
The choice of options for solving the problem;
Implementation of solutions.
Express diagnostics and identification of signs of a problem. The initial stage of any diagnostic study is the establishment of goals, structure and boundaries of the object under study, i.e. its characteristic. In order to describe the material flow management system and give its generalized characteristics, it is necessary to highlight the essential features that make it possible to define it as part of a higher order system. These signs include:
1) isolation - characterizes the distribution of tasks and functions of material flow management between the divisions of the enterprise;
2) openness indicates the connection of the logistics system with the external environment, its orientation to the search for opportunities to solve emerging problems in the external environment;
3) stability or the variability of the state and behavior of the logistics system over time - characterizes the presence of a mechanism for adapting to the requirements of the environment;
4) the nature of the structure of the system management of material flows indicates the degree of its complexity, formalization and centralization;
5) kind of structure- characterizes the features of the spatial state and the predominant mechanism for coordinating activities, for example, a linear or functional structure.
An assessment of the internal state of the material management system serves as the basis for identifying signs of problems.
In the conventional sense, the problem defines a situation in which there is a discrepancy between the desired and actual state of the object. The presence of a problematic situation can be judged by the external and internal states of the system and its external environment.
External signs characterize the situation associated with the possibility of increasing the efficiency of the logistics system due to the progressive changes that have taken place in the external environment, for which it does not have ready-made recipes. The appearance of new technologies and materials, more efficient means of transportation, new sources of sales and supply bases can serve as such signs.
Internal signs determine the situation in which the solutions implemented by the logistics system do not give the expected result, which is reflected in the low efficiency of the adopted material flow management scheme (delivery deadlines are not met, the required quality of materials is not ensured; there is no control over the level of stocks, there are delays in acceptance decisions, etc.).
The problem of material flow management is such a state of the system, the change of which due to a non-standard situation or the absence of the necessary prerequisites for this is impossible by known methods.
The existence of material flow management problems is established through the collection and processing of information. The assessment of the state of material flows is carried out using a system of indicators that reflects the features of managing material flows at individual stages of the movement of goods, in the process of transporting and storing materials.
For each of the material flow management subsystems, the following groups of indicators are distinguished: target; structural; economy and quality.
Example 1
Indicators for assessing the state of material flows
(materials procurement stage)
1. Targets
1.1. Reliability of the procurement system
1.2. Share of satisfied needs
1.3. Security of the need for materials
2. Structural indicators
2.1. Number of employees involved in the supply process
2.2. Order structure
2.3. Volumes of purchased resources
3. Indicators of profitability and quality
3.1. The cost of supplying one conditional unit of supplied products
3.2. The number of deliveries that have any deviations from the total number of deliveries
3.3. Delivery time
The result of this stage of diagnostics is a list of management functions and processes for which deviations are observed between the actual and expected returns of decisions, as well as possible environmental conditions for which the system does not have a ready-made action program to respond.
Formulation and diagnosis of the problem. This stage involves the reduction of problems, their analysis and diagnosis.
Reduction or simplification of the problem is achieved in the process of analyzing the existing situation (problem situation) and aims to reduce the problem to the task of developing and (or) improving the material flow management system.
The analysis of the current situation is reduced to the search for the key causes of the problem situation. The first phase in diagnosing a complex problem is recognizing the symptoms of the problems. The symptoms are characteristics of the behavior or functioning of the system.
The presence of a particular symptom can be judged by deviations from the normal course of processes in the logistics system or its environment.
Example 2
Symptoms and causes of an unsatisfactory state of material flow management at the stage of distribution of finished products:
1. The choice of irrational methods of product delivery.
2. Scattered destinations of transportation.
3. Shortcomings and errors in planning the distribution process.
4. Underestimation of marketing opportunities when planning the implementation process.
5. Absence or insufficiency of control over stocks of finished products (excess stocks or their shortage).
6. Deficiencies in the regulation of product delivery processes.
7. Insufficient contacts and communications of the enterprise with consumers.
8. Inconsistency in plans and schedules for the delivery of products to consumers.
Analysis of symptoms of manufacturer problems in two directions:
According to the components of the material flow management system: organization of management, management of the progress and timing of the implementation of production orders, management of the material support of production, inventory management, management of the supply of finished products;
By stages of the management cycle: organization, planning, control and regulation, coordination of actions.
In the process of diagnosis, a selection of causes is carried out and those that are significant enough and those that play an insignificant role are distinguished.
Based on the results of the analysis of the symptoms of the causes, a diagnosis of the problem is established. The diagnosis contains indications of the main directions of the desired changes and the scope of their action.
Choice of options for solving the problem. Systematization of data characterizing the actual state of the material flow management system and symptoms of the causes of the problem situation allows you to plan options for solving the problem.
The choice of the optimal variant is made in four stages. At the first stage, the possibility of a complete or partial solution to the problem is established, at the second, solutions are formed, at the third, the proposed options are compared with each other and evaluated from the point of view of the selected criteria, and finally, at the fourth stage, a variant of solving the problem is selected and the result is checked.
The result of the decision at each stage can have two meanings that determine the further course of the study. Upon completion of the first stage of solving the problem, one of two options is possible: preparing a partial solution or conducting a review of the complete solution to the problem. Each of these activities, in turn, can lead to both positive and negative results. So, if a complete solution is not possible, a branch with a negative result leads to a partial solution, and a branch with a positive result leads to the choice of an option for a complete solution to the problem. When checking the decision made, the negative option indicates the search for new hypotheses and involves the re-formulation of the problem. If the answer is positive, the decision is final and it is possible to proceed to its implementation.
Diagnostics is one of the important elements of correctional and developmental work. Diagnostics allows the teacher to understand whether he is carrying out his activities in the right direction. It is designed, firstly, to optimize the process of individual learning, secondly, to ensure the correct determination of learning outcomes, and thirdly, guided by the selected criteria, to minimize errors in assessing children.
The main goal of diagnosing is to obtain not so much qualitatively new results as operational information about the real state and trends in the object of diagnosis in order to correct the pedagogical process.
Common diagnostic features are:
The presence of the goals of pedagogical assessment of the state of the diagnosed object;
Systematicity and repeatability of diagnosing as a type of professional pedagogical activity carried out in typical situations at certain stages of the pedagogical process (introductory diagnostics, intermediate, final, etc.);
Use of techniques specially developed and (or) adapted to these specific situations and conditions;
Availability of procedures for their implementation by teachers.
During the diagnostic examination, it is important to maintain a trusting, friendly atmosphere: do not express your dissatisfaction with the wrong actions of children, do not point out mistakes, do not make value judgments, speak words of approval and encouragement more often.
The duration of an individual examination should not exceed 15 minutes.
The diagnostic results are recorded in the diagnostic table, and diagrams are compiled on their basis.
Diagnostic results are the starting points of individual educational routes for each child.
When diagnosing children entering school, studies of cognitive activity, speech and physical readiness, but not personal readiness for school, are basic. However, the importance of developing personal readiness, especially for children with speech disorders, is obvious. Personal readiness also implies a certain level of the emotional sphere of the child. By the beginning of schooling, he should have formed emotional stability (lack of impulsive reactions, the ability to perform tasks that are not very attractive for a long time), against which the development and course of educational activities is possible.
The use of questionnaires for children with deviations in speech development is not always justified, since preschoolers often do not understand the complex wording of the question, because their vocabulary is not sufficiently developed, the grammatical structure of speech is violated. For the examination of preschoolers with speech disorders, methods such as drawing tests can be recommended. I used one of these tests, based on the M. Luscher test, to identify the emotional well-being of children with ONR.
Based on the evaluation criteria developed by A.I. Yuryev, I received the following results: in 9 children, out of 10 tested, positive emotions prevail; 1 child has a normal emotional state, except for low motivation for learning activities; children with a predominance of negative emotions were not identified.
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Monitoring of speech development of children for 2009-2011 academic year. G.
One of the components of a comprehensive study of children (their speech and non-speech processes, sensorimotor sphere, intellectual development, personality traits, etc.) is a speech therapy examination.
Its purpose is to establish what kind of speech disorder the child has, to determine its nature and severity, to identify potential opportunities for further mastery of the native language.
Diagnostic technique:"Methodology for the examination of speech disorders in children", ed. G.A.Volkova.
Diagram
speech development of children for 2 years of study
conclusions
1. The results of the control experiment showed a positive trend in the studied speech parameters in children participating in the empirical study.
2. In the children of the experimental group, the total score for completing all the tasks of the repeated study increased to 60.3 points (the average for the group), which is 22.9 points higher than in the ascertaining experiment (37.4).
3. Of the 12 children in the experimental group, 4 had a high level of the studied indicators during the control experiment (at the ascertaining stage - 0), 7 children had an average level (at the ascertaining stage - 3). In 1 child (Danil K.) in the control study, the indicator remained at a low level, however, the total number of points in the repeated experiment in this child increased significantly to 40 points (in the control experiment - 12 points).
4. The correctional speech therapy work carried out during the formative experiment significantly improved the state of the studied indicators in children with general speech underdevelopment.
