Carl Gustav Jung "Psychological typology. Carl Gustav Jung "Psychological Typology" Carl Gustav Jung psychological types

11.05.2016 10:28

Carl Gustav Jung, a student and associate of Sigmund Freud, had an extensive psychiatric practice for almost sixty years. He observed people a lot and became convinced that the structure of the psyche that Freud described does not manifest itself in the same way. People perceive reality differently.

Summarizing and systematizing observations, his own and those of his students, Jung described eight psychological types. His work formed the basis of the book Psychological Types, which was published in 1921. From Jung's point of view, each person has individual traits and traits inherent in one of the psychological types. The psychological type manifests itself in early childhood and almost does not change during life, although as it grows older it can be smoothed out. It is worth emphasizing that the typology does not limit the freedom of choice of a person, is not an obstacle to a career or love, does not hinder its development. This is a kind of framework, the structure of personality. It does not negate the diversity of characters and individuality of a person, ideas about good and evil, his personal life experience, his own thoughts, cultural level. Jung's theory helps to understand how people perceive the world.

Jung introduced new concepts into science - extraversion and introversion.

An extrovert is focused on the outside world. An introvert draws strength from within. There are no pure extroverts and introverts in the world. Each person is just inclined to one or another perception of the world, sometimes behaves differently at home and at work. Extroverts are more active than introverts. They are comfortable in today's free market society. They strive for status, awards, achievements, superiority, relax and draw strength in the company of friends. Negative manifestations of extraversion - selfishness, arrogance, willfulness. Since extroverts tend to lead, relationships develop better in a pair where a man is an extrovert in his psychological type, and a woman is an introvert.

Introverts are no better or worse than extroverts. They have their own weaknesses and advantages. Introverts recuperate by immersing themselves in their own inner world. In order to successfully interact with the external world that is difficult for them, they purposefully focus on its individual aspects. Introverts are good strategists, thoughtful and reasonable. They are able to see the situation deeper and further. Unlike introverts, extroverts are tacticians and strive to win here and now. Negative manifestations of introversion - wandering in the clouds, unwillingness to follow their own appearance inability to express one's thoughts.

But back to Jung's theory. The next concept that belongs to him is psychological functions. According to the scientist's observations, some people operate well with logical data, while others cope better with emotional information. There are people with great intuition, and people who have better developed sensations. The four basic psychological functions, according to Jung, are thinking, feeling, intuition, sensation.

Thinking helps a person to establish conceptual connections between the content of his ideas. In the process of thinking, he is guided by objective criteria, logic. The senses, on the contrary, are based on the assessment of representations: good or bad, beautiful or ugly. The next psychological function is intuition. It is connected with the unconscious perception of what is happening, instincts. The fourth psychological function - Feel, which are based on physical stimuli caused by specific facts. Every person has all four psychological functions. They help him build a unified picture of the world. Functions are developed differently. As a rule, one dominates over the others.

Depending on the predominance of the function, Jung first identified types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. He further divided psychological functions into two classes: rational functions - thinking and feeling, irrational - intuition and sensation. Functions also form alternative pairs: feeling and thinking, intuition and sensation. The scientist argued, for example, that feelings suppress thinking, and thinking can interfere with feeling.

Rational functions Jung called reasonable, because they are focused on objective values ​​and norms accumulated and accepted in society. Irrational behavior, from the scientist's point of view, is behavior that is not based on reason. These psychological functions are neither bad nor good. In dealing with all sorts of situations, both rational and irrational approaches can be important. Jung noted that sometimes an excessive focus on a reasonable resolution of the conflict can prevent you from finding an answer on an irrational level.

Jung analyzed each of the psychological functions from the standpoint of extraversion and introversion and defined eight psychological types. Extroverts and introverts are rational and irrational. Rational extroverts and rational introverts, in turn, meet thinking and feeling. Irrational extroverts and irrational introverts are sentient and intuitive.

Most clearly, the psychological type is manifested in relationships. Usually happy couples, ideal friends and colleagues are people who complement each other. Two introverts can wait for initiative from a partner and not wait. Two extroverts are not able to get along or work together because they are too enterprising, each pulling the blanket over himself. A person will be more successful in the field of activity that is inherent in his psychological type, but nothing prevents him from developing in himself other qualities necessary in work, in public or in his personal life.

Knowing your psychological type will help you understand your predisposition, actively use your strengths and find ways to compensate for weaknesses. There are times when the type of person is very blurred, but this is rather an exception.

If you cannot independently determine your psychological type, most likely you simply do not have enough information or you do not want to be honest with yourself. Contact a professional psychologist who will test you and give you the resolution recommendations you need life situations, self-development and achievement of goals.

Tatiana Prokofieva

A talented student and colleague of Z. Freud, Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961), a Swiss scientist, psychiatrist and psychotherapist, had a large psychiatric practice, which he led for about sixty years. In the course of his work, he systematized his observations and came to the conclusion that there are stable psychological differences between people. These are differences in the perception of reality. Jung noted that the structure of the psyche, described by Z. Freud, does not manifest itself in people in the same way, its features are associated with the psychological type. Studying these features, Jung described eight psychological types. The developed typology, which was used and refined for decades in the practice of Jung himself and his students, was embodied in the book Psychological Types, published in 1921.

From the point of view of the typology of C. G. Jung, each person has not only individual traits, but also traits characteristic of one of the psychological types. This type shows relatively strong and relatively weak points in the functioning of the psyche and the style of activity that is preferable for a particular person. “Two faces see the same object, but they do not see it in such a way that both pictures obtained from this are absolutely identical. In addition to the different acuteness of the sense organs and personal equation, there are often profound differences in the nature and extent of the mental assimilation of the perceived image, ”wrote Jung.

Each person can be described in terms of one of Jung's psychological types. At the same time, typology does not cancel the entire diversity of human characters, does not set insurmountable barriers, does not prevent people from developing, does not impose restrictions on the freedom of choice of a person. The psychological type is the structure, the framework of the personality. Many different people of the same type, having great similarities in appearance, manners, speech and behavior, will not be similar to each other in absolutely everything. Each person has his own intellectual and cultural level, his own ideas about good and evil, his own life experience, his own thoughts, feelings, habits, taste.

Knowing your personality type at the same time helps people find their own means to achieve goals, be successful in life, choosing the most appropriate activities and achieving the best results in them. According to the compiler of the anthology, "Jungian typology helps us understand how differently people perceive the world, how different criteria they use in actions and judgments."

To describe observations, C. G. Jung introduced new concepts that formed the basis of typology and made it possible to apply analytical methods to the study of the psyche. Jung argued that each person is initially focused on perception or outside parties life (attention is mainly directed to the objects of the external world), or internal (attention is mainly directed to the subject). He called such ways of understanding the world, oneself and one's connection with the world installations human psyche. Jung defined them as extraversion and introversion:

« extraversion is, to a certain extent, a transposition of interest outside, from subject to object.

Introversion Jung called the inversion of interest when "the motivating force belongs primarily to the subject, while the object belongs to the greatest secondary value" .

There are no pure extroverts or pure introverts in the world, but each of us is more inclined towards one of these attitudes and operates predominantly within its framework. "Every person has common mechanisms, extraversion and introversion, and only the relative predominance of one or the other determines the type."

Further, C. G. Jung introduced the concept psychological functions. The experience of working with patients gave him reason to assert that some people are better at operating with logical information (reasoning, inference, evidence), while others are better with emotional information (people's relationships, their feelings). Some have a more developed intuition (premonition, perception in general, instinctive grasping of information), others have more developed sensations (perception of external and internal stimuli). Jung identified four basic functions on this basis: thinking, feeling, intuition, feeling and defined them like this:

Thinking there is that psychological function which brings the data of the content of representations into a conceptual connection. Thinking is occupied with truth and based on impersonal, logical, objective criteria.

Feeling is a function that gives the content a certain value in terms of accepting or rejecting it. The feeling is based on value judgments: good - bad, beautiful - ugly.

Intuition there is that psychological function which conveys to the subject perception in an unconscious way. Intuition is a kind of instinctive apprehension, the certainty of intuition resting on certain psychic data, the realization and existence of which, however, remained unconscious.

Feeling - that psychological function that perceives physical irritation. Sensation is based on the direct experience of perceiving concrete facts.

The presence of all four psychological functions in each person gives him a holistic and balanced perception of the world. However, these functions are not developed to the same extent. Usually one function dominates, giving a person real means to achieve social success. Other functions inevitably lag behind it, which is by no means a pathology, and their "backwardness" is manifested only in comparison with the dominant one. “As experience shows, the basic psychological functions are rarely or almost never of equal strength or the same degree of development in the same individual. Usually this or that function outweighs both in strength and in development.

If, for example, in a person, thinking is on the same level as feeling, then, as Jung wrote, we are talking about “relatively undeveloped thinking and feeling. Uniform consciousness and unconsciousness of functions is a sign of a primitive state of mind.

According to the dominant function, which leaves its mark on the whole character of the individual, Jung defined types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. The dominant function suppresses the manifestations of other functions, but not to the same extent. Jung argued that “the feeling type suppresses thinking the most, because thinking is most likely to interfere with feeling. And thinking excludes, mainly, feeling, for there is nothing that would be so capable of hindering and distorting it, as precisely the values ​​of feeling. Here we see that Jung defined feeling and thinking as alternative functions. Similarly, he defined another pair of alternative functions: intuition-sensation.

Jung divided all psychological functions into two class: rational(thinking and feeling) and irrational(intuition and feeling).

« Rational there is a reasonable, correlated with the mind, corresponding to it.

Jung defined mind as an orientation towards the norms and objective values ​​accumulated in society.

Irrational according to Jung, it is not something anti-rational, but lying outside the mind, not based on the mind.

“Thinking and feeling are rational functions, since the moment of reflection, reflection has a decisive influence on them. The irrational functions are those whose goal is pure perception, such are intuition and sensation, because they must, in order to fully perceive, as much as possible to renounce everything rational. … In accordance with their nature [intuition and sensation] must be directed towards absolute contingency and towards every possibility, therefore they must be completely devoid of rational direction. As a result, I designate them as irrational functions, as opposed to thinking and feeling, which are functions that reach their perfection in full agreement with the laws of reason.

Both rational and irrational approaches can play a role in dealing with different situations. Jung wrote: "too much expectation, or even the certainty that for every conflict there must be the possibility of a reasonable resolution, can prevent its actual resolution on an irrational path."

Using the introduced concepts, Jung built a typology. To do this, he considered each of the four psychological functions in two settings: both in extraverted and introverted, and defined accordingly 8 psychological types. He stated: "both the extraverted and the introverted type can be either thinking, or feeling, or intuitive, or feeling." Jung gave detailed descriptions of types in his book Psychological Types. For a better understanding of Jung's typology, let's summarize all 8 types in a table (Table 1).

Table 1. Psychological types of C. G. Jung

It should not be forgotten that a living person, although belonging to one of the personality types, will not always show typological features. We are talking only about preferences: it is more convenient for him, it is easier to act in accordance with his psychological type. Each person is more successful in activities characteristic of his type of personality, but he, if desired, has every right to develop in himself and apply in life and work his weak qualities. At the same time, it is necessary to know that this path is less successful and often leads to neuroticism. Jung wrote that when trying to change the type of personality, a person "becomes neurotic, and his cure is possible only through the identification of an attitude naturally corresponding to the individual."

Literature:

1. K.G. Jung. Psychological types. - St. Petersburg: "Juventa" - M.: "Progress - Univers", 1995.

2. Theories of personality in Western European and American psychology. Anthology on the psychology of personality. Ed. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: "Bahrakh", 1996.

Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 - June 6, 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, the founder of one of the areas of depth psychology, analytical psychology.

Born in the town of Kessvil in the family of a priest. In his youth, he read philosophical works avidly. He graduated from the Universities of Basel and Zurich, in 1900 he began working in a mental hospital at the University of Zurich.

While working in the clinic, Jung became acquainted with the works of Sigmund Freud, and later with their author. Since 1907, they began to work in close cooperation, which lasted five years.

In 1921, the work "Psychological Types" was published, in which Jung divided all people into introverts and extroverts, and also substantiated his theory of archetypes for the first time.

In 1933, Jung became professor of psychology at the Federal Polytechnic University in Zurich. In 1943 he moved to Basel, where he took the post of professor of medical psychology at the university.

Books (40)

Why has the number of mental illnesses and nervous disorders increased so much in our era?

Why do mass psychoses engulf entire nations? Why are there so many clearly expressed abnormalities, schizophrenic deviations in politics, journalism, culture? What is the symbolism of madness and is there a hidden meaning in it? The outstanding thinkers of the 20th century, Carl Gustav Jung and Michel Foucault, tried to find answers to these questions.

This edition collects their works on the causes and symbolism of madness in modern world, as well as the history of insanity in Western society.

On the psychology of Eastern religions and philosophies

The collection includes selected works of K-G. Jung, the founder of analytical psychology, devoted to the analysis of the psychological foundations of Eastern religions and philosophical systems and the problem of their contact with European civilization.

The reader will learn how analytical psychology relates to prominent personalities and sacred texts of the East - India, Tibet and China.

One modern myth

This book is one of the last works of the outstanding Swiss psychologist, psychiatrist, philosopher, culturologist, founder of analytical psychology. The author focuses on the UFO phenomenon, the growing interest in which he connects with the heightened experience of socio-psychological problems in the crisis periods of history.

Enormous erudition, a wide range of Jung's interests takes the content of the book beyond the question of "flying saucers" - the reader will find here an analysis of mythological plots and painful states, dreams and works of art.

Essays on the psychology of the unconscious

Works included in this book, mark a turning point in the history of analytical psychology, and outline the main points on which much of Carl Gustav Jung's later work is based. The translation was made according to volumes 7 and 18 of the collected works of Jung, published by Princeton University.

The book is addressed to specialists - psychologists, philosophers, cultural historians - and to everyone who is interested in questions of analytical psychology.

An attempt at a psychological interpretation of the doctrine of the Trinity

The present study grew out of a lecture I gave at a meeting of the Eranos Society in 1940. Published under the title "On the Psychology of the Idea of ​​the Trinity," the lecture was nothing more than a sketch, which, as it was clear to me from the very beginning, still needed to be improved. . That is why I, so to speak, considered it my moral duty to return to this subject in order to consider it in a way that would correspond to the dignity and importance of the topic. Carl Gustav Jung

Problems of the soul of our time

This book is one of the most convenient entry into the world of analytical psychology by Carl Gustav Jung.

Psychoanalysis and art

A collection of works by prominent psychologists K. G. Jung and E. Neumann is dedicated to the relationship of a person of art with the culture of his country and his own `I`. The works of C.G. Jung about Picasso, D. Joyce's novel `Ulysses`, about the creative process of poets and writers are offered. problems in art, in particular the connection of form with the chaos of the modern world.

Psychology and alchemy

The monumental work of C. G. Jung, to the creation of which he devoted more than 40 years of his life, is not only a deeply psychological, but also a philosophical study.

Jung draws a link from Gnosticism through alchemical symbolism to philosophical psychology. This book touches on such bold assumptions and hypotheses that it can safely be called a work of the 21st century.

Encyclopedic knowledge, phenomenal erudition and originality of thinking allowed C. G. Jung, who relied in his research both on Eastern philosophy and on the Western Hermetic tradition, to cover a gigantic range of issues.

Psychology and religion

"... since religion is without a doubt one of the earliest and most universal activities of the human mind, it is obvious that any kind of psychology that touches on the question of the psychological structure of the human personality inevitably faces at least the fact that religion is not only a sociological or historical phenomenon, but has personal significance for a huge number of individuals ... "

The psychology of transference

The book presents for the first time the best therapeutic works of C. G. Jung, in particular - `Schizophrenia`, `The Practical Use of Dream Analysis`, as well as the monograph `Psychology of Transference`, in which he, on the basis of an alchemical treatise, considers the principles and theory of transference and countertransference, their nature and symbolism, provides valuable therapeutic advice.

Works in psychiatry

Collected here is Jung's research on schizophrenic thought disorders (the opening of this collection) marked the beginning of a long collaboration between Jung and Freud. This work was the first to propose a psychosomatic theory of schizophrenia. This book also includes nine other articles by Jung on psychiatric issues.

Collection of books

Archetype and symbol
Memories, dreams, reflections
Soul and myth. Six archetypes
Biography, worldview, quotes in 60 minutes
Research into the Phenomenology of the Self
Children's Soul Conflicts
Red Book
Criticism of psychoanalysis
Symbols and metamorphoses. Libido

One modern myth
Problems of the soul of our time
Psychoanalysis and art
Psychological types
Psychology and religion
The psychology of transference
Works in psychiatry
Transcendental Function
Man and his symbols

Seminar on Kundalini Yoga

From October 3 to October 8, 1932, the Indologist Wilhelm Hauer presented six lectures in English and German in parallel at the Psychological Club of Zurich entitled "Der Yoga, im besondern die Bedeutung des Cakras" ("Yoga, especially the meaning of the chakras"). Following this, Jung devoted four lectures to the psychological interpretation of Kundalini Yoga.

Symbols and metamorphoses. Libido

This book is one of the best known in psychoanalytic literature. With this work of the still young Carl Jung, a work both classical and revisionist, his departure from Freudian analysis began. The translation is authorized by Jung himself.

Carl Gustav Jung and Analytical Psychology

Among the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century, it is safe to name the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung.

As you know, analytical, more precisely, depth psychology is a general designation of a number of psychological trends that put forward, among other things, the idea of ​​the independence of the psyche from consciousness and seek to substantiate the actual existence of this psyche independent of consciousness and reveal its content. One of these areas, based on the concepts and discoveries in the field of the mental, made by Jung at different times, is analytical psychology. Today, in the everyday cultural environment, such concepts as complex, extrovert, introvert, archetype, once introduced into psychology by Jung, have become common and even stereotyped. There is a misconception that Jung's ideas grew out of idiosyncrasy towards psychoanalysis. And although a number of Jung's provisions are indeed based on Freud's objections, the context itself, in which the "building elements" arose in different periods, which later constituted the original psychological system, of course, is much broader and, most importantly, it is based on ideas and views that are different from Freud's. both on human nature and on the interpretation of clinical and psychological data.

Carl Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil, Canton Thurgau, on the shores of the picturesque Lake Konstanz in the family of a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church; my paternal grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors. He studied at the Basel Gymnasium, his favorite subjects of the gymnasium years were zoology, biology, archeology and history. In April 1895 he entered the University of Basel, where he studied medicine, but then decided to specialize in psychiatry and psychology. In addition to these disciplines, he was deeply interested in philosophy, theology, and the occult.

After graduating from medical school, Jung wrote a dissertation, "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena," which turned out to be a prelude to his creative period that lasted almost sixty years. Based on carefully prepared séances with her extraordinarily gifted mediumistic cousin Helen Preiswerk, Jung's work presented a description of her messages received in a state of mediumistic trance. It is important to note that from the very beginning of his professional career, Jung was interested in unconscious mental products and their meaning for the subject. Already in this study /1-V.1. pp. 1–84; 2- S. 225-330 / one can easily see the logical basis of all his subsequent works in their development - from the theory of complexes to archetypes, from the content of libido to ideas about synchronicity, etc.

In 1900, Jung moved to Zurich and began working as an assistant to Eugene Bleuler, a well-known psychiatrist at the time, at the Burchholzli mental hospital (a suburb of Zurich). He settled in the hospital area, and from that moment on, the life of a young employee began to pass in the atmosphere of a psychiatric monastery. Bleuler was the visible embodiment of work and professional duty. From himself and his employees, he demanded accuracy, accuracy and attentiveness to patients. The morning tour ended at 8.30 am with a working meeting of the staff, at which reports on the condition of the patients were heard. Two or three times a week at 10.00 in the morning there were meetings of doctors with a mandatory discussion of the case histories of both old and newly admitted patients. The meetings took place with the indispensable participation of Bleuler himself. The obligatory evening round took place between five and seven o'clock in the evening. There were no secretaries, and the staff themselves typed the medical records, so sometimes they had to work until eleven o'clock in the evening. The hospital gates and doors were closed at 10.00 pm. The junior staff had no keys, so if Jung wanted to get home from the city later, he had to ask for the key from one of the senior staff. Dry law reigned on the territory of the hospital. Jung mentions that he spent the first six months completely cut off from the outside world and read the fifty-volume Allgemeine Zeitschrift f?r Psychiatrie in his spare time.

Soon he began to publish his first clinical papers, as well as articles on the application of the word association test he had developed. Jung came to the conclusion that through verbal connections it is possible to detect (“grope”) certain sets (constellations) of sensually colored (or emotionally “charged”) thoughts, concepts, ideas and, thereby, enable painful symptoms to emerge. The test worked by evaluating the patient's response by the time delay between stimulus and response. As a result, a correspondence was revealed between the reaction word and the subject's behavior itself. Significant deviation from the norm marked the presence of affectively loaded unconscious ideas, and Jung introduced the term "complex" to describe their whole combination. /3- P.40 et seq./

In 1907, Jung published a study on dementia praecox (Jung sent this work to Sigmund Freud), which undoubtedly influenced Bleuler, who four years later proposed the term "schizophrenia" for the corresponding disease. In this work /4- S. 119-267; 5 / Jung suggested that it is the "complex" that is responsible for the production of a toxin (poison) that retards mental development, and that it is the complex that directs its mental content directly into consciousness. In this case, manic ideas, hallucinatory experiences and affective changes in psychosis are presented as to some extent distorted manifestations of the repressed complex. Jung's book "Psychology of dementia praecox" turned out to be the first psychosomatic theory of schizophrenia, and in his further works, Jung always adhered to the belief that psychogenic factors were the primacy in the occurrence of this disease, although he gradually abandoned the "toxin" hypothesis, later explaining more in terms of disturbed neurochemical processes.

The meeting with Freud marked an important milestone in Jung's scientific development. By the time of personal acquaintance in February 1907 in Vienna, where Jung arrived after a short correspondence, he was already widely known both for his experiments in word associations and for the discovery of sensory complexes. Using Freud's theory in experiments - his works he knew well - Jung not only explained his own results, but also supported the psychoanalytic movement as such. The meeting gave rise to close cooperation and personal friendship, which continued until 1912. Freud was older and more experienced, and there is nothing strange in the fact that he became for Jung, in a sense, a father figure. For his part, Freud, who accepted Jung's support and understanding with indescribable enthusiasm and approval, believed that he had finally found his spiritual "son" and follower. In this deeply symbolic connection "father - son" both the fruitfulness of their relationship grew and developed, as well as the seeds of future mutual renunciation and disagreement. An invaluable gift for the whole history of psychoanalysis is their many years of correspondence, which amounted to a full-length volume / 6-P.650 [the volume contains 360 letters covering a seven-year period and varying in genre and length from a short greeting card to an actual essay of one and a half thousand words]; 7- S. 364–466 [in Russian, the correspondence is partially published here]/.

In February 1903, Jung married the twenty-year-old daughter of a prosperous manufacturer, Emma Rauschenbach (1882–1955), with whom he lived for fifty-two years, becoming the father of four daughters and a son. At first, the young people settled on the territory of the Burchholzli clinic, occupying an apartment on the floor above Bleuler, and later, in 1906, they moved to a newly built own house in the suburban town of Küsnacht, not far from Zurich. A year earlier, Jung began teaching at the University of Zurich. In 1909, together with Freud and another psychoanalyst, the Hungarian Ferenczy, who worked in Austria, Jung first came to the United States of America, where he gave a course of lectures on the method of word associations. Clark University in Massachusetts, which invited European psychoanalysts and celebrated its twenty-year existence, awarded Jung, along with others, an honorary doctorate.

International fame, and with it a private practice that brought a good income, gradually grew, so that in 1910 Jung left his post at the Burchholzl clinic (by that time he had become clinical director), accepting more and more patients in his Küsnacht, on shore of Lake Zurich. At this time, Jung becomes the first president of the International Association for Psychoanalysis and plunges into his in-depth studies of myths, legends, fairy tales in the context of their interaction with the world of psychopathology. Publications appear that quite clearly outline the area of ​​Jung's subsequent life and academic interests. Here, too, the boundary of ideological independence from Freud was more clearly marked in the views of both on the nature of the unconscious psyche.

First of all, the disagreement was revealed in the understanding of the content of libido as a term that defines the mental energy of the individual. Freud believed that mental disorders develop due to the repression of sexuality and the transfer of erotic interest from the objects of the external world to the patient's inner world. Jung, on the other hand, believed that contact with the outside world is maintained in other ways than sexual, and the loss of contact with reality, which is characteristic, in particular, for schizophrenia, cannot be associated only with sexual repression. Therefore, Jung began to use the concept of libido to refer to all mental energy [Considering Jung's energy concept in characterizing mental phenomena, it is interesting to note a similar position on this issue, expressed at one time by our compatriot Nikolai Grot. Namely, that the concept of psychic energy is just as legitimate in science as the concept of physical energy, and that psychic energy can be measured like physical energy. /8/], not limited to sexual form. In the future, differences in views were revealed on other issues. For example, Freud believed that neurosis necessarily arises in early childhood and its main factors are incestuous fantasies and desires associated with the so-called oedipal complex. Jung, on the contrary, was convinced that the cause of neurosis is hidden in today and all children's fantasies are a second-order phenomenon. Freud believed that our dreams are unfulfilled desires that have moved into sleep in order to declare themselves in such an indirect way. The "visible content of the dream," he said, was merely a veil over the "hidden content," which, as a rule, was nothing more than repressed sexual desire. early childhood. For Jung, dreams were channels of communication with the unconscious side of the psyche. They are conveyed in symbolic language, very difficult to understand, but not necessarily associated with desires or hide the unacceptable. Most often, dreams complement the conscious day life, compensating for the flawed manifestations of the individual. In a situation of neurotic disorder, dreams warn of going off the right path. Neurosis is a sufficiently valuable signal, a "useful" message indicating that the individual has gone too far. In this sense, neurotic symptoms can be regarded as compensatory; they are also part of a self-regulatory mechanism aimed at achieving a more stable balance within the psyche. Paradoxically, Jung sometimes said about someone: "Thank God, he became neurotic!" Just as physical pain signals a malfunction in the body, so neurotic symptoms signal the need to draw attention to psychological problems that a person was not aware of.

In short, Jung's "apostasy" was inevitable, and the events that followed led to the fact that in 1913 there was a break between the two great people, and each went his own way, following his own creative genius.

Jung was very sensitive to his break with Freud. In fact, it was a personal drama, a spiritual crisis, a state of internal mental discord on the verge of deep nervous breakdown. “He not only heard unknown voices, played like a child, or wandered around the garden in endless conversations with an imaginary interlocutor,” notes one of the biographers in his book on Jung, “but also seriously believed that his house was haunted.” /9-P.172/

At the time of his divergence from Freud, Jung was thirty-eight years old. Life afternoon, pritin, akme, turned out to be at the same time a turning point in mental development. The drama of separation turned into an opportunity for greater freedom to develop one's own theory of the contents of the unconscious psyche. In Jung's work, an interest in archetypal symbolism is increasingly revealed. In personal life, this meant a voluntary descent into the "abyss" of the unconscious. In the six years that followed (1913–1918), Jung went through what he himself called a time of "internal uncertainty" or "creative sickness" (Ellenberger). Jung spent considerable time trying to understand the meaning and meaning of his dreams and fantasies and to describe it - as far as possible - in terms of everyday life. /10- Ch. VI. P.173 et seq. [autobiographical book]/ The result is a voluminous manuscript of 600 pages, illustrated with many drawings of dream images and called the "Red Book". (For personal reasons, it has never been published.) Having gone through a personal confrontation with the unconscious, Jung enriched his analytic experience and created new system analytical psychotherapy and a new structure of the mental.

In Jung's creative destiny, a certain role was played by his "Russian meetings", relationships at different times and on different occasions with immigrants from Russia - students, patients, doctors, philosophers, publishers psychoanalysis in general in Russia, one way or another connected with the analytical concept of Jung. Now it has become even more clear that, following Freud, Jung was (and remains) one of the most striking and influential figures, whose works and ideas contained in them attracted and continue to attract the attention of the Russian cultural reader.]. The beginning of the "Russian theme" can be attributed to the end of the first decade of the 20th century, when medical students from Russia began to appear among the participants in the psychoanalytic circle in Zurich. We know the names of some: Faina Shalevskaya from Rostov-on-Don (1907), Esther Aptekman (1911), Tatyana Rosenthal from Petersburg (1901–1905, 1906–1911), Sabina Spielrein from Rostov-on-Don Don (1905–1911) and Max Eitingon. All of them later became specialists in the field of psychoanalysis. Tatyana Rozental returned to St. Petersburg and later worked at Bekhterev's Brain Institute as a psychoanalyst. He is the author of the little-known work "The Suffering and Creativity of Dostoevsky." /11- S. 88–107/ In 1921, at the age of 36, she committed suicide. A native of Mogilev, Max Eitingon moved with his parents to Leipzig at the age of 12, where he then studied philosophy before embarking on a medical path. He worked as Jung's assistant at the Burchholzli clinic and, under his direction, received his doctorate from the University of Zurich in 1909. Another "Russian girl" Sabina Spielrein was a patient of the beginning doctor Jung (1904), and later became his student. After completing her education in Zurich and receiving her doctorate in medicine, Spielrein survived a painful break with Jung, moved to Vienna and joined Freud's psychoanalytic circle. For some time she worked in clinics in Berlin and Geneva, where the famous psychologist Jean Piaget began his psychoanalysis course. In 1923 she returned to Russia. She became a member of the leading psychoanalysts of the State Psychoanalytic Institute formed in those years in Moscow. Her further fate was very tragic. After the closure of the Psychoanalytic Institute, Sabina Nikolaevna moved to Rostov-on-Don to her parents. The ban on psychoanalytic activity, the arrest and death of three brothers in the dungeons of the NKVD, and, finally, death in Rostov, when she, along with her two daughters, shared the fate of hundreds of Jews who were shot in the local synagogue by the Germans in December 1941. [More details about S. Spielrein and others /12; 13; fourteen/]

Vienna and Zurich have long been considered centers of advanced psychiatric thought. The beginning of the century brought them fame and in connection with clinical practice Freud and Jung, respectively, so there was nothing surprising in the fact that the attention of those Russian clinicians and researchers who were looking for new means of treating various mental disorders and sought to penetrate deeper into human psyche. And some of them specially came to them for an internship or for a brief acquaintance with psychoanalytic ideas.

In 1907-1910, Jung was visited at various times by Moscow psychiatrists Mikhail Asatiani, Nikolai Osipov and Alexei Pevnitsky [For material on their stay, see the journals: Psychotherapy (1910. No. 3); Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry (1908. Book 6); Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology (1911. No. 2).]. Of later acquaintances, the meeting with the publisher Emil Medtner and the philosopher Boris Vysheslavtsev should be especially noted. During the period of Jung's "skirmish" with the unconscious and work on "Psychological Types", Emilius Karlovich Medtner, who fled to Zurich from warring Germany, turned out to be almost the only interlocutor capable of perceiving Jung's ideas. (Jung left the post of president of the Psychoanalytic Association, and with it he lost many personal ties with his colleagues.) While still living in Russia, Medtner founded the Musaget publishing house and published the philosophical and literary journal Logos. According to Jung's son, Medtner's psychological support had great importance for the father [Oral communication by A. Rutkevich]. Abroad, Medtner suffered from frequent tinnitus, about which he first turned to the Viennese Freudians. They could not help in any way, except for the urgent advice to marry. It was then that the meeting with Jung took place. Medtner prepared for long-term treatment, but the tormenting symptom disappeared after a few sessions. The patient-analyst relationship developed into a friendly and at first almost daily relationship. Then, for a number of years, Jung and Medtner met once a week, in the evening, and discussed certain philosophical and psychological issues. Jung's son remembered that his father called Medtner "the Russian philosopher."

Years later, Medtner publishes the first review of the published book Psychological Types, and later becomes the publisher of Jung's works in Russian, writes prefaces to them. The death of Medtner prevented the completion of the work begun on the publication of four volumes of the works of C. G. Jung. This work was completed by another "Russian" - the philosopher Boris Petrovich Vysheslavtsev (1877-1954). Exiled by the Bolsheviks in 1922 from Russia, at first he worked in the Religious and Philosophical Academy created by N. A. Berdyaev. Later he lectured at the Paris Theological Institute. In 1931 he published the book "The Ethics of Transformed Eros", in which, under the influence, in particular, of the ideas of C. Jung, he put forward the theory of the ethics of sublimation of Eros. In those years, a correspondence began between Jung and Vysheslavtsev, in which Vysheslavtsev declared himself a student of Jung. In the late 1930s, through the efforts of Vysheslavtsev, the four-volume collection of Jung's works was completed. On the eve of the end of the war in April 1945, Jung helped Vysheslavtsev and his wife move from Prague to neutral Switzerland.

After the publication of "Psychological Types" for the 45-year-old master of psychology, a difficult stage began in strengthening the positions he had won in the scientific world. Gradually, Jung is gaining more and more international fame not only among colleagues - psychologists and psychiatrists: his name begins to arouse serious interest among representatives of other areas of humanitarian knowledge - philosophers, cultural historians, sociologists, etc. And here, looking ahead, it should be said that the works and Jung's ideas sparked waves of influence in at least two areas. The first is the school of psychological theory and therapy, that is, clinical and personal psychoanalytic practice; the second area of ​​influence is art and humanitarian fields of knowledge in general and science in particular. And in this sense, Jung's views on mental life, art and history can be roughly reduced to the following statements:

1. The unconscious is real. Its activity, its energy basis within us and between us is constantly manifesting. Psychic reality cannot be unrecognized and unacknowledged. Our conscious mind is not the only manager of the entire individual economy, it is not even the only (authoritative, but not always) master and captain of our thoughts. We are always and in everything - individually and collectively - under the influence - good or bad, the question is different - of the energy that we are not aware of.

2. Precisely because the unconscious is not conscious of us, we cannot say anything directly about it. But we still judge it by its "fruits", by indirect manifestations in the conscious psyche. Such manifestations-manifestations can occur in dreams, works of art and literature, in imagination, daydreams, some specific forms of behavior, as well as in those symbols that govern peoples and societies.

3. The resulting (manifest) manifestation of the psychic is always a fusion, a mixture of various influences, a combination of a wide variety of factors. First of all, there is the work of the ego, our conscious self. Then, as participants in the action, one can see the personal (mostly unconscious) complexes of the individual or group to which this or that participant belongs. And thirdly, it is easy to trace the participation of one or another combination of archetypal influence, which has its initiating principle in the collective psyche, but is realized in the same individual (the collective unconscious). From the interaction of all these components, actions, ideas, works of art, any mass movements and collective actions arise. And here is hidden the eternal “fascination” with the life of both an individual person and groups, societies, nations and all of humanity. From rock art and initiatory dances of primitive savages to mass experiences of world wars or the Gulag.

4. The unconscious is occupied with the continuous reproduction of symbols, and these are psychic symbols related to the psyche. These symbols, like the psyche itself, are based on empirical reality, but are not signs representing this reality. Jung analyzes in detail both the content of the symbol and its difference from the sign in many of his works, but here I will limit myself to a simple example. For example, in a dream, the image of a bull may underlie the dreamer's sexuality, but the image itself does not come down to this. Jung's attitude to symbols is ambiguous because he avoids rigid fixation ("this means that") of the depicted image. The bull - as a symbol of psychic energy representing strength - can symbolize aggressive male sexuality, but it can simultaneously express phallic productive creativity, and the image of the sky, and the figure of a strict father, etc. In any case, the free path of symbolic reflection opens up wide possibilities for meaning and is opposed to all literalism, fundamentalism of any kind.

5. Jung was deeply convinced that the meaning of mental symbols is much wider than personal boundaries. The archetypal symbol is transpersonal in its essence. It is interpersonal in meaning. Here, perhaps, Jung's non-denominational religiosity is hidden. Jung was convinced that the life story exists on two levels and therefore should be told, as in the old epic poems, the Bible or the Odyssey: figuratively and allegorically. Otherwise, history, like life itself, turns out to be incomplete and, therefore, inauthentic. This corresponds to the two-level division of the psychic into consciousness and the unconscious.

So, in all cases there is psychic reality as, in Jung's phrase, "the only evidence" or "the highest reality." In his work "Real and Surreal" /15- Vol.8. P. 382–384/ Jung describes this concept as follows. He compares the eastern type of thinking and the western one. According to the Western view, everything that is “real” is somehow comprehended by the senses. Such a restrictive interpretation of reality, its reduction to materiality, although it seems understandable, is only a fragment of reality as a whole. This narrow position is alien to the Eastern vision of the world, which relates absolutely everything to reality. Therefore, the East, unlike the West, does not need definitions such as "superreality" or "extrasensory perception" in relation to the psychic. Previously, Western man considered the mental only as a "secondary" reality, obtained as a result of the action of the corresponding physical principles. An illustrative example of such an attitude can be considered the ingenuous materialism a la Fogg-Moleshott, who declared that "thought is almost in the same relation to the brain as bile is to the liver." At present, Jung believes, the West is beginning to realize its mistake and realize that the world in which it lives is represented by mental images. The East turned out to be wiser - such is Jung's opinion, since he found that the essence of all things is based on the psyche. Between the unknown essences of spirit and matter lies the reality of the psychic, and it is called to be the only reality that we experience directly.

Therefore, Jung considered the study of the psyche to be the science of the future. For him, the actual problem of humanity was not so much the threat of overpopulation or a nuclear catastrophe, but the danger of a mental epidemic. Thus, in the fate of mankind, the decisive factor is the person himself, his psyche. Even more specifically: this "decisive factor" is focused and concentrated in the unconscious psyche, which is the real threat; “The world hangs on a thin thread, and this thread is the human psyche” /16/.

In the 1920s, Jung made a series of long and fascinating journeys, which he undertook to various parts of Africa and to the Pueblo Indians in North America. An account of these exploratory trips (including a trip to India later in 1938), or rather, a kind of cultural-psychological essay, later formed the chapter "Journeys" in Jung's autobiographical book "Memories, Dreams, Reflections" [Russian translation see .: Asia and Africa today. 1989. No. 11.12; 1990. No. 1; /10- S.405/]. Unlike carefree tourists, Jung was able to look at another culture from the point of view of revealing the meaning contained in it; comprehending this meaning, he believes that history itself has a well-known universal human meaning, within which the interaction of both cultures and times is possible. There are two main themes here: Jung - a psychologist and psychotherapist and Jung - a culturologist. This is the theme of personal development - individuation and the theme of the collective unconscious. Jung considered individuation as a being directed towards the achievement of mental integrity, and used to characterize it numerous illustrations from alchemy, mythology, literature, Western and Eastern religions, using his own clinical observations. As for the "collective unconscious", this concept is also the key to all analytical psychology and, according to many reputable scientists and thinkers, is "the most revolutionary idea of ​​the 20th century", an idea from which no serious conclusions have been drawn until now. .

Jung objected to the idea that a person is completely determined by his experience, training and environmental influences. He argued that each individual comes into the world with a "holistic personality blueprint...presented in potency from birth" and that " environment does not at all give the individual the opportunity to become one, but only reveals what was already in it [the individual]”. According to Jung, there is a certain hereditary structure of the psyche, developed over hundreds of thousands of years, that makes us experience and realize our life experience in a very specific way. And this certainty is expressed in what Jung called archetypes that influence our thoughts, feelings and actions. “... The unconscious, as a collection of archetypes, is the sediment of everything that has been experienced by mankind, down to its darkest beginnings. But not a dead sediment, not an abandoned field of ruins, but a living system of reactions and dispositions, which determines individual life in an invisible, and therefore more effective way. However, this is not just some kind of gigantic historical prejudice, but a source of instincts, since archetypes are nothing but forms of manifestation of instincts” /17- p.131/.

In the early 1920s, Jung met the famous sinologist Richard Wilhelm, the translator of the famous Chinese treatise The Book of Changes, and soon invited him to give a lecture at the Psychological Club in Zurich. Jung had a keen interest in Eastern divinatory methods and experimented with them himself with some success. He also participated in those years in a number of mediumistic experiments in Zurich, together with Bleuler. The sessions were led by Rudi Schneider, a well-known Austrian medium in those years. However, Jung for a long time refused to draw any conclusions about these experiments and even avoided any mention of them, although he later openly admitted the reality of these phenomena. He also showed a deep interest in the works of medieval alchemists, in whom he saw the forerunners of the psychology of the unconscious. In 1923, Jung purchased a small plot of land on the shores of Lake Zurich in the town of Bollingen, where he built a tower-type building and where he spent Sundays and holidays in peace and solitude. There was no electricity, no telephone, no heating. Food was cooked on the stove, water was drawn from the well. As Ellenberger aptly remarked, the transition from Küsnacht to Bollingen symbolized for Jung the path from the ego to the Self, or, in other words, the path of individuation. /18-P.682/

In the 1930s, Jung's fame became international. He was awarded the title of Honorary President of the Psychotherapeutic Society of Germany. In November 1932, the Zurich City Council awarded him the Literature Prize with a check for 8,000 francs.

In 1933, Hitler came to power in Germany. The Psychotherapeutic Society was immediately reorganized according to National Socialist principles, and its president, Ernst Kretschmer, resigned. Jung became the President of the International Society, but the Society itself began to operate on the principle of a "cap organization" consisting of national societies (of which the German Society was only one of) and individual members. As Jung himself later explained, this was a kind of subterfuge that allowed Jewish psychotherapists, excluded from German society, to remain within the organization itself. In this regard, Jung rejected all accusations regarding his sympathies for Nazism and indirect manifestations of anti-Semitism.

In 1935, Jung was appointed professor of psychology at the Swiss Polytechnic School in Zurich, in the same year he founded the Swiss Society for Practical Psychology. As the international situation grew worse, Jung, who had never before shown any obvious interest in world politics, began to take more and more interest in it. From the interviews that he gave in those years to various magazines, one can understand that Jung tried to analyze the psychology of state leaders and especially dictators. On September 28, 1937, during a historic visit to Berlin by Mussolini, Jung happened to be there and had the opportunity to closely observe the behavior of the Italian dictator and Hitler during a mass parade. Since that time, the problems of mass psychoses have become one of the focuses of Jung's attention.

Another turning point in Jung's life must be attributed to the end of the Second World War. He himself notes this moment in his autobiographical book (see Chap. "Visions"). Early in 1944, Jung writes, he broke his leg and also suffered a heart attack during which he lost consciousness and felt he was dying. He had a cosmic vision in which he viewed our planet from the outside, and himself no more than the sum of what he once said and did during his life. The next moment, when he was about to cross the threshold of a certain temple, he saw his doctor coming towards him. Suddenly, the doctor took on the features of the king of the island of Kos (the birthplace of Hippocrates) in order to bring him back to earth, and Jung had the feeling that something threatened the doctor’s life, while his, Jung’s, own life was saved (and indeed, a few weeks later, his doctor died unexpectedly). Jung noted that he first felt bitter disappointment when he came back to life. From that moment something changed in him irrevocably, and his thoughts took a new direction, which can be seen from his works written at that time. Now he has become a "wise old man from Kusnacht" ...

Toward the end of his life, Jung became less and less distracted by the external vicissitudes of everyday events, more and more directing his attention and interest to global problems. Not only the threat of nuclear war, but also the ever-increasing overpopulation of the Earth and the barbaric destruction of natural resources, along with the pollution of nature, deeply worried him. Perhaps for the first time in the history of human survival, as a whole, appeared in a menacing light in the second half of the 20th century, and Jung was able to feel it much earlier than others. Since the fate of humanity is at stake, it is natural to ask: is there not an archetype that represents, so to speak, the whole of humanity and its fate? Jung saw that in almost all world religions, and in a number of other religious denominations, such an archetype exists and reveals itself in the form of the so-called primordial (first man), or cosmic man, anthropos. Anthropos, a giant space man, personifies the vital principle and meaning of all human life on Earth (Ymir, Purusha, Pan-ku, Gayomart, Adam). In alchemy and gnosticism we find a similar motif of the Man of Light who falls into darkness or is dismembered by darkness and must be "collected" and returned to the light. In the texts of these teachings there is a description of how the Man of Light, identical to God, first lives in the Pleroma [ Pleroma - a term coined by the Gnostics. Denotes a "place" beyond space-time representations, in which all tensions between opposites fade away or are resolved. /19/], then is defeated by the forces of Evil - as a rule, these are star gods, or Archons - falls or "slides" down and eventually turns out to be scattered in matter in the form of many sparks, where he will have to wait for his salvation. His redemption or liberation consists in picking up all the scattered pieces and returning to the Pleroma. This drama symbolizes the process of individuation in the individual; each initially consists of such chaotic diverse particles and can gradually become one personality by collecting and realizing these particles. But this drama can also be understood as an image of the slow gradual development of mankind towards higher consciousness, about which Jung wrote in great detail in his works "Answer to Job" and "Aion".

Confidence in the absolute unity of all that exists led Jung to the idea that the physical and mental, like space and time, are human, mental categories that do not reflect reality with the necessary accuracy. Because of the very nature of their thoughts and language, people are inevitably forced (unconsciously) to divide everything into their opposites. Hence the antinomy of any statements. In fact, opposites can turn out to be fragments of the same reality. Jung's collaboration last years life with the physicist Wolfgang Pauli led both to the conviction that the study by physicists of the depths of matter, and by psychologists - the depths of the mental can only be different ways of approaching a single, hidden reality. Neither psychology can be "objective" enough, since the observer inevitably influences the observed effect, nor physics, which is not capable of simultaneously measuring the momentum and speed of a particle at the subatomic level. The principle of complementarity, which has become the cornerstone of modern physics, is also applicable to the problems of soul and body.

Throughout his life, Jung was impressed by the sequence of different seemingly unrelated events occurring simultaneously. Let's say the death of one person and disturbing dream his close relative, which happened at the same time. Jung felt that such "coincidences" required some additional explanation other than the assertion of some kind of "coincidence". This additional principle of explanation Jung called synchronicity. According to Jung, synchronicity is based on universal order meaning that is complementary to causality. Synchronic phenomena are associated with archetypes. The nature of the archetype - neither physical nor mental - belongs to both areas. So archetypes are able to manifest both physically and mentally at the same time. A case in point is the case of Swedenborg mentioned by Jung, where Swedenborg experienced a vision of a fire at the very moment when the fire was actually raging in Stockholm. According to Jung, certain changes in the state of Swedenborg's psyche gave him temporary access to "absolute knowledge" - to the area where the boundaries of time and space are overcome. The perception of ordering structures affects the psyche as meaning.

In 1955, in honor of Jung's eightieth birthday, the International Congress of Psychiatrists was held in Zurich, chaired by Manfred Bleuler, son of Eugene Bleuler (with whom Jung began his career as a psychiatrist in Burchholzli). Jung was asked to give a talk on the psychology of schizophrenia, the topic with which his scientific research began in 1901. But at the same time, loneliness grew around him. In November 1955, Emma Young, his wife, who had been his constant companion for more than half a century, died. Of all the great pioneers of depth psychology, Jung was the only one whose wife became his student, adopted his methods and techniques, and practiced his psychotherapeutic method.

As the years passed, Jung weakened physically, but his mind remained alert and responsive. He amazed his guests with subtle reflections on the secrets of the human soul and the future of mankind.

At eighty-five, Carl Gustav Jung received the title of honorary citizen of Kusnacht, where he settled back in 1909. The mayor solemnly presented the "wise old man" with a ceremonial letter and seal, and Jung made a response speech, addressing the audience in his native Basel dialect. Shortly before his death, Jung completed his autobiographical book Memories, Dreams, Reflections, which became a bestseller in the Western world, and, together with his students, wrote the fascinating book Man and His Symbols, a popular exposition of the foundations of analytical psychology.

Carl Gustav Jung died at his home in Küsnacht on June 6, 1961. The farewell ceremony took place in the Protestant church of Kusnacht. The local pastor, in a funeral speech, called the deceased "a prophet who managed to hold back the all-encompassing onslaught of rationalism and gave man the courage to regain his soul." Two other students of Jung - theologian Hans Scher and economist Eugene Buhler noted the scientific and human merits of their spiritual mentor. The body was cremated and the ashes buried in the family grave at the local cemetery.

Being a Jungian for students and followers of Jung did not at all mean accepting all the provisions of his theory. The main meaning of the term "Jungian" continues to be to not leave the search for answers to those questions that Jung formulated and to which he himself tried to get an answer throughout his life. So all sorts of today's disagreements between Jungian analysts should be considered first of all as a healthy and significant incentive for further development.

But what happened to analytical psychology after the death of its founder? It should be noted that today in the world, in addition to certified Jungian analysts, there are quite a few people who practice Jungian analysis and formally do not have diplomas, as well as professional authors, teachers, consultants, social workers who share the analytical-psychological paradigm and use it in their practice. .

In 1955, during Jung's lifetime, the International Association of Analytical Psychologists (IAAP) was founded. At its inception, it had about forty members. In 1958, the first Congress was held, representing already 150 analysts, organized in eight regional groups. Today, their number has exceeded two thousand, and thirty-two organizations operate in various countries of the world.

In addition, there are many organizations with open membership, such as the "Friends of Jung" or Analytical Clubs, which originated from the Club of Analytical Psychology in Zurich, created in 1916. Clubs accept as members people who have more than a hundred hours of personal analysis. The circle of participants in the analytical movement in the West is also expanding due to the large number of people who read analytical literature and attend educational and educational programs organized by the institutes of analytical psychology. In Russia, interest in Jung has not yet been organized in any way, although well-known Jungian analysts periodically come here to give lectures and conduct practical seminars. There is hope that with the expansion of publications of works on analytical psychology here, the formalization of this interest will occur sooner or later.

The main questions that modern analytical psychology continues to seek answers to remain the same as those posed by Jung:

How does the psychic work?

What leads to psychological development?

Everyone here finds their own answers, but there is also something in common that connects these answers in professional analysis groups. Over the past decades, there has been a more or less distinct distribution of the nature of the responses among different groups, or schools. The London Jungian analyst Andrew Samuels (1985) identifies here three main schools: Classical. Development and Archetypal.

The classical school proceeds directly from Jung's formulations. She persistently and consistently explores what Jung himself said. It is not surprising that it arose and formed in Zurich. The School of Development has its origins in the London Society for Analytical Psychology. Its leader is called Michael Fordham. The School of Development also has representatives in Germany and the USA. Here the main emphasis is on the influence of early childhood experiences on the psyche of an adult. Fordham and his followers remain in the Jungian paradigm, although they consider archetypal patterns in the natural processes of development beginning in infancy.

The third newest school is represented primarily by the work of James Hillman. Being a creative successor of Jung's ideas, he writes that the names for the psychology developed by Jung - Jungian, analytical, complex - "were not adequate to the psychology they were trying to designate." Hillman argues that although Jung himself did not use the term "archetypal psychology", he could have done so if he had first set out to develop his concept of the archetype. After all, later, when this was done, the archetype became a fundamental idea in analytical psychology. But Hillman's own work took the development of archetypal psychology beyond Jung's notions of the psyche. Hillman takes very seriously the fact that the Greek word psyche (Psyche) also means "soul", and not just the psychic. In this sense, psychology, according to Hillman, is "the making of the soul", its creation, construction, production.

AT recent history In post-Jungian analytical thought, the conditional “watershed” on the question of the relationship between “symbolic” and “clinical” was quite clearly marked. [This topic turned out to be so important that the International Congress of Jungian Analysts, held in 1983 in Jerusalem, was devoted to it. /twenty/]