The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammar categories

II. Types grammatical categories. Grammar categories of different languages

Among the grammatical categories, the following types are distinguished:

2. Morphological (inflectional and classifying; general and particular: gender, number, case, tense, person, inclination, pledge; number, gender, case, person, tense, pledge, aspect, inclination.

All differences come down to three types:

1) presence-absence of a category;

Regarding the category of case, it should be noted that in Russian there are 6 cases, in Turkmen there are none, in German - 4, in Lithuanian - 15 cases. Russian has endings, Turkmen has suffixes, Romance languages have articles.

In Russian, names and participles change according to cases and numbers, verbs according to persons and numbers, but in Turkic languages names change according to persons.

III. Parts of speech. Principles of classification

Parts of speech- this is the most general classes words that differ from each other by a complex of grammatical meanings, a set of grammatical forms and syntactic functions.

Each word belongs to a particular part of speech.

Parts of speech are distinguished by four features: semantic, morphological, syntactic, derivational. Isolation, definition and classification of parts of speech is one of the most difficult theoretical issues of linguistics.

At the heart of the allocation of parts of speech (as we see from the definition) are three criteria: semantic: my ↔ kind

morphological: run ↔ run

syntactic: I'm hot ↔ firewood is burning hot

Let us dwell in more detail on the characteristics of each criterion.

FROM semantic terms differ in their meaning. To distinguish parts of speech, it is important not the specific meaning of the word, but the generalized lexical grammatical meaning: objectivity, process, quality. He is not self-sufficient: build - construction, pallor - pale.

From a semantic point of view, all words are divided into independent and official.

Morphological the criterion focuses on the morphological appearance of the word: grammatical categories and paradigm. For example, nouns and adjectives have common grammatical categories (gender, number, case), but differ in paradigmatics. The criterion is not self-sufficient: such - beautiful, dumplings - wide.

From this point of view, the parts of speech are divided into changeable and immutable.

Syntactic the principle is that when highlighting parts of speech, it is important to take into account the syntactic function and compatibility. For example, adverbs - circumstances, category of state - the main member one-part sentence; enter the dumplings, but enter the wide one. The principle is not self-sufficient: The house is standing. - The house is beautiful.

The syntactic criterion plays an important role in the selection of service invariable words.

An adequate division of words into parts of speech is possible only if all these criteria are taken into account. Therefore, the parts of speech are characterized as lexical and grammatical categories of words. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that any sign may not be marked, but this is also important, in which case they speak of negative marking. For example, function words - semantics +

inflection - syntactic. + interjections - semantics +

inflection - syntactic. + → words-prepositions.

The absolutization of any feature leads to a one-sided classification; and although from a logical point of view it is more consistent, it does not reflect the whole variety of the semantic structure of words.

In Russian studies, attempts to classify according to the morphological principle are known - the school of F.F. Fortunatov (Peshkovsky, Ushakov, Peterson). Numerals and pronouns are not distinguished as parts of speech, but were distributed among nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. A similar view in the grammar of AN-80: adjectives + ordinal numbers + pronouns.

In order to state that in some language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some general meaning, so that within this association there is an opposition and that those opposed meanings have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites language units on the basis of the common meaning "number". Within this association, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural is expressed by the endings -i and -nyami -and that -a.

The formal expression is very important feature grammatical category, since it is precisely its presence or absence that is the main criterion for distinguishing a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language can not exist as a grammatical one, and in another language as a lexical one. Hence, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is a conceptual category of gender and a grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category of stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, whale. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of its expression. In the Ukrainian language, as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German, there is such a category, because there are formal means of expressing it here: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (nem der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le rege "father ", la x and Romance languages are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by marked and indefinite articles. So, in particular, it der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects , are already known to the speaker and listener, while the same nouns with the indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some flower, some window.Similarly in English, French, Italian: certainty is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English and French un, une, Italian un, una. Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of certainty / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but the conceptual category of certainty /. There is NOT certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some kind of book, the category of significance / ambiguity is expressed lexically (this book, like a book).

The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. So, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages there is a category of the grammatical class "person" and "things", in Japanese and Korean languages - the category of politeness and. The language also differs in the number of opposed members within the categories. For example, in English language there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - thirteen, in Tabasarai - forty sixth - forty six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological category includes the category of gender, number, case, type, tense, manner, person, to the syntactic category - the category of activity / passivity, to the communicative orientation (narrative, nutritional, spontuality), rigidity / reverberation, syntactic tense and syntactic way.

Classification (word-building, derivational) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of noun gender and the category of the aspect of the verb, therefore, nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one specific gender), and verbs are distributed among three aspect groups - verbs of perfect or imperfect output or two-species.

Inflectional (relative) categories - grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classifiable, but are declined by gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deed, great impression). Purely relational also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.

In the languages of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, certainty / indefinitely, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It does not exist in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In Ukrainian, every noun has a category of gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and past tense verbs, this category is dependent on the noun with which the word classes are named. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The genus category has a formal expression. In Slavic languages - ce endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for middle, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for novice, la, una for feminine genus.

Number of cases in different languages is not the same. There are languages in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages of the world, the category of number does not match. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual and a triple. The dual was in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two are ele, etc.). Troina is found in some of the Papuan languages on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages - Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic, there were three numbers: singular, dual and plurality.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the described situation (certainty) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is typical for Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages and is expressed using the articles of definitions is English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (last for set), and indefinitely corresponding to a; ein, eine, ein; un, une. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages, there are postpositive arts kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg table "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato "certain table"; village "some village" - village "a certain village"; village "yakes village" - village "pevne village".

In those languages where there are no articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!), are used for this. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty:. The boy went out into the street;. On a boy came out of the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing the meaning of signification / indefiniteness is the context. As we can see, in the Ukrainian language the category of certainty / indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of its expression here.

Distinguish between ordinary, high and high degree. In some languages, there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of the highest and superlative degrees. The highest degree indicates the presence of b in the object of some quality more than in another, high - more than in all others. A positive degree means quality regardless of the degree.

Degrees of comparison have adjectives and adverbs (heavy, heavier, heavy; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o "can do", kuzhodzhik "can do more";

The degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more known - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. Good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

Category of time - the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves to temporally localize the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech in most languages there are three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages have sp. PECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the past time, before the future tense, coming in the past, vinulom toshcho).

In Slavic languages, the perfect and imperfect form are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates the achievement of the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (he made a noise, wrote). An imperfect mind does not indicate the limit of action (noises, he wrote). In the Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) of its expression.

Category of state - grammatical category of the verb, expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics, there is still no generally accepted classification of states, however, all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the object (The song is performed by students.

This is the speaker's assessment of the action as desirable, possible, supposed (assumption), etc.

Different languages have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages have real (represents an action as a real fact), conditional (represents an action as possible, desired, supposed, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, inducement or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, created special forms conditional to designate conditional actions and to express assumptions, possibilities, desirability and non-categorical statements (German Ich w. Igawa, but translates it from the lips of others. In this way, they convey a shade of distrust, doubt, doubt.

In agglutinative languages (for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I write, write, write)

The category of a person refers to concordant, inflectional. It is expressed by personal endings (I guess, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages (Samoyedic, Paleo-Asiatic), the category of person is characteristic not only for verbs, but also for names in the position of the predicate. Yes, in In the Koryak language, gyolyaigym "man-I", gyolyaigyt "man-ty", gyola "man-he"; nytuigym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-he" However, there are also languages in which the category of a person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and some others... Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and other languages lie before them.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - the names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, too.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some prefabricated nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-sya (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, real names, names of creatures / inanimate formal indicators do not have (city. Eagle and an eagle flies, oil and a window, a crow and a crown));

3) interact with the grammatical categories associated with them. So, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to the active state), the category of case depends on the being / inanimate (in the names of creatures, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive, in the names of inanimate the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative), from persons / non-specially - the category of gender (names in ru usually have the category of masculine or feminine, the names are neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have the form of only the singular or only the plural (Kyiv ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms contrasted within the category. If, for example, names are opposed to common names, names of creatures are opposed to inanimate names, transitive verbs are intransitive. Dies words, then inside real and collective nouns such opposition. NO.

Lecture 9

Claim for the recovery of a tax sanction.

After the decision to prosecute for committing tax offense individual who is not an individual entrepreneur or in other cases when an out-of-court procedure for collecting tax sanctions is not allowed, the relevant tax authority files a claim with the court to recover from this person a tax sanction established by the legislation on taxes and fees.

Before applying to the court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held liable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax sanction. If a person held liable for committing a tax offense refused to voluntarily pay the amount of the tax sanction or missed the payment deadline specified in the demand, the tax authority applies to the court with a statement of claim to recover from this person the tax sanction established by the tax code, for committing this tax offence.

A statement of claim for the recovery of a tax sanction from an organization or an individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur, to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other materials of the case obtained in the course of the tax audit.

In necessary cases, simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send a petition to the court to secure a claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the APC).

1. The concept of a grammatical category. Principles of allocation of grammatical categories in language.

2. The main grammatical categories of the name.

3. The main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammar category - this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing feature is decisive, for example, the generalized value of time, person, pledge, etc., which unites the system of values of individual tenses, persons, pledges, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposing members within such categories may be different: for example, the gender category is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant is unification principle grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a union is a generalized value (for example, the value of time), which combines - as a generic concept - the values of the components of this category. The systemic nature of the language does not consist in a simple external organization of linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of the language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is just such a relation, subordinated to the indicated principle. For grammar, this quality is especially important; thus, one can speak of the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in a given language; if there is no such opposition, and there is only one form (as for the gender in English or in the Turkic languages, or for the case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity, opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun has inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animation/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is inflectional in nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. inherent Old Russian special forms of the dual number have not been preserved in modern Russian, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: shores, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural form denotes a quantity of more than one: table- pl. tables, day- pl. days, wood- pl. h. trees, thunderstorm- pl. thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to the singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfumes, canned food.

In those cases where the formation of plural forms is possible for the words singularia tantum, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. "species plural" type wine- pl. guilt, the beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoted a large number type water- pl. water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by the numeral: A new book- pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading- pl. h. Students read/read. For indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing a number is the only one: new coat, one coat- pl. h. new coats, three coats; one pair of scissors- pl. h. two scissors, one day- pl. h. four / several / many days.

case in Russian expresses the relation of nouns to other words in a phrase and sentence. The inflectional morphological category of the case is constructed as a contrast between the six main series of forms and five additional ones that differ in inflections, and the inflections of nouns express both the case meaning and the meaning of the number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence, they are a definition or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative,

· parental,

· dative,

accusative,

creative,

prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. It is the original form of the paradigm, appearing in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house and head for home; to drive the car and sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always unprepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases, it is also essential what part of speech they syntactically obey; There is a difference between verbal and adjectival use of case forms.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun belongs to a certain grammatical gender) and is built as a contrast of three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words incapable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate masculine and feminine nouns (names of people and, in part, names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father and mother, teacher and teacher, a lion and lioness), while for inanimate nouns (partially also for animal names) it is indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. Rowan and oak in the folk song "Thin rowan", as well as Father Frost, Princess Frog etc.). The gender differences of nouns are expressed only in the singular, so the nouns pluralia tantum do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place is occupied by the so-called nouns of the general gender, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, have grammatical features of masculine and feminine gender ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by a system of inflections of a noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of an agreed or coordinated word (an adjective or another word inflected as an adjective, a verb-predicate). Since the system of inflections of the singular does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the II declension can refer to both the feminine and the masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For the so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with nouns of the general gender ( round(m.s.) orphan and round(female) orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - the names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which, when indicating the female gender of a person, can be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has come, we have a new doctor(colloquially).

3. The aspect of a verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes between verbs not perfect look(answering the question "What to do?": fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly in).

The transitivity of the verb is characterized by compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; the intransitiveness of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

A special group is made up of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -sya: keep laughing.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor: dad eats an apple; passive voice verbs appear in a passive construction when the object becomes the object of action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative - expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: go, look. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional or subjunctive mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desirable: would have honored. It is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle by.

Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. It is formed by adding the end of the present tense to the stem -and: bring, give; graduation -those: take, speak; adding particles let, let: let it go, let it go.

Time- a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of aspect: NSV - sell - sold - will sell; SW - sold - selling.

In a sentence, the verb can be a simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; compound verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving did not please me..

In Russian, there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), so they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: Ringing in the ears. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are, for example, the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms units. and many others. h. This characteristic is historically variable: compare, for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identifiable (referential, nominative), expressing primarily various semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the indicated interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

It is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from a grammatical category in morphology - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; personal and impersonal verbs; so-called ways of verbal action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been studied less; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to highlight the grammatical category of the communicative orientation of the statement, which is built as a contrast between narrative, incentive and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity / passivity of the sentence structure; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-building categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by a grammatical category? What are the principles for highlighting grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?

Grammatical categories are usually classified on two grounds: by the number of members that form the category, and by the nature of the relationship between them. A grammatical category cannot have less than two members. If there were only one form with any meaning, then this meaning could not be grammatical, since it would be deprived, firstly, of the relationship between the concrete and the general, and secondly, of regularity. Those categories that consist of two members are called binary. However, there are grammatical categories with a large number of members. Trinomial, for example, is the category of time. An even greater number of members contains the category of case.
The oppositions that form a grammatical category can (as in the case of phonetic oppositions) constitute an equipotent opposition, i.e., be in such relations when the members are equal. It is in such relations that word forms are found that form, for example, the category of number in nouns. There are also categories whose members constitute a privative opposition, i.e., are in such relations when one of the members can convey not only "his" attribute, but also the attribute expressed by another member. So, according to some scientists, the category of tense is “arranged” for imperfective verbs, where the past tense word forms indicate the action before the moment of speech, the future tense word forms indicate the action after this moment, and the present tense word forms can indicate the action regardless of the moment of speech . (Compare with the opposition of the secretary-secretary type, where the second member denotes only a female person, and the first one denotes both sexes.)
A feature of grammatical categories is also their ability or inability to oppose word forms of one lexeme. Let's look at some examples.
The category of number in nouns is able to oppose word forms that do not differ from each other in anything other than the meaning of the number: table - tables, road - roads, gun - guns. The category of time in verbs is able to contrast word forms that differ from each other not only in the meaning of time, but also in other grammatical meanings. I wrote and I will write differ from each other in the meaning of time, as well as in the meanings of gender and person. The meanings of gender and person are grammatical. Consequently, the grammatical categories of number for nouns and tense for verbs are able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme.
The nouns godfather and godfather, head and head, student and student differ in their combinational possibilities, which, being obligatory, form the gender category of nouns. However, the nouns under consideration differ not only in combinational properties, but also in content: godfather, manager, student indicate a male person; godfather, manager, student - on a female person. Characterization by gender is not mandatory for nouns. Nor is it regular: a noun with the meaning of a person or an animal does not always have a correlate with the meaning of the opposite sex. (How to form in Russian names of females from insolent or fighter?) Consequently, the gender category of nouns is not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme. This category is always combined with such characteristics that are not grammatical and form the opposition of lexemes.
Grammatical categories capable of opposing word forms of one lexeme are usually called inflectional. Grammatical categories that are not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme are usually called classifying or lexico-grammatical.

So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side adjoins word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other hand, to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.

“parts of speech”, in accordance with tradition, began to be used in relation to all distinguished classes of words, including auxiliary, modal, and interjections. four.

Gram.kat is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.

Gram.cat. is a two-sided unit of the morphological system of the language, which has PV (semantics) and PS (external signs, with the help of which the semantics are vyr-sya). In terms of semantics, a gram.cat.is a set of homogeneous gram.values (the general semantics of the categorical case named after a noun includes private values of 6 cases, in the queue private gram.values can be are divisible into elementary gram.values From the point of view of the PVgramm.cat, this is a set of grammatical forms that serve to calculate private gram.values. down with-long, etc. when folding them. adj., we select several forms, their set is r-e singular, and the value of the plural is r-by forms long-long-long, etc. .). Particular grammatical values, expressed by grammatical forms, form oppositions, which constitute the essence of grammatical cat (singular opposite plural). gram.values.are included in oppositions for various reasons.Gram.cat.are marked by the number of opposing members (they can be two-term, 3-member or more). .inflective members of which can be represented by forms of the same word (time, mood, person ch.). such members of which cannot be represented by members of one and the same word (genus, odush-neod, name noun). the belonging of certain grammatical categories (n., type and voice at ch.) to an inflectional or non-inflective type is the object of discussion. Distinction.gram.cat.from lexical-grammar.categories. lexico-grammatical categories are such subclasses within the definition of speech, which have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings (n., im. collect., concret., abstract., substances, and appl. TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP OF PS AND PV: 1) one or another form of the word expresses the content of the def. gram. cat; 2) some form that the word has, being a form of the def cat. the specific content of this cat., i.e. there is a PV, but not a PS; 3) the word form contains the meaning of this or that gram. cat, but there is no special form for its expression in the word.

You can also find information of interest in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:

The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammar categories

More on the topic GRAMMATIC CATEGORY. TYPES OF GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. THE DIFFERENCE OF GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES FROM LEXICO-GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES.: