How to read hormone tests. Interpretation of clinical laboratory tests Conversion of µmol l to mg dl

In everyday life, we quite often hear the phrases “hormonal imbalance”, “an overabundance or lack of a hormone in the blood” and other similar ones. But what do they mean? The level of hormones in the blood affects the functioning of all systems of the human body.

Hormones are a kind of helpers of every process that takes place in our body. It is the joint activity nervous system and hormones provides well-coordinated work all life systems. Any “malfunction” in this mechanism leads to quite serious consequences for the whole organism as a whole. Finding out the cause and extent of the problem helps hormone tests. General analysis rarely required, more often you need to find out the concentration of a particular hormone responsible for the work of a particular organ. Therefore, almost any doctor can prescribe a study.

Hormone test rates are usually indicated on the form that the patient receives in the laboratory, but not always. Checking the norms and your indicators, pay attention to the units in which the answers are given:

• ng / ml - nanogram of a substance (hormone) in 1 ml of plasma or blood serum
• nmol/l - nanomole of a substance in 1 liter of plasma
• ng / dl - nanogram of a substance in 1 deciliter of plasma
• pg / ml - picogram of a substance in 1 ml of plasma
• pmol/l - picomole of a substance in 1 liter of plasma
• mcg / l - microgram of a substance in 1 liter of plasma
• µmol/l - micromole of a substance in 1 liter of plasma

It is also possible that the concentration of the analyte (hormone) is given in international units:

• honey/l
• mIU/l
• U/ml

Hormone concentration in urine as a rule, it is determined in a daily amount:

• mmol/day
• µmol/day
• mg/day
• mcg/day

Norms of tests for hormones

Somatotropic function of the pituitary gland

Somatotropic hormone (STH) in blood serum

• newborns 10-40 ng/ml
• children 1-10 ng/ml
• adult men up to 2 ng/ml
• adult women up to 10 ng/ml
• men over 60 years old 0.4-10 ng/ml
• women over 60 1-14 ng/ml

Somatotropic hormone (GH) in urine is determined in parallel with the determination of creatinine. It is enough to examine only the morning portion of urine:

• 1-8 years 10.2-30.1 ng/g creatinine
• 9-18 years old 9.3-29 ng/g creatinine

Somatomedin in blood serum:

men

• 1-3 years 31-160 U/ml
• 3-7 years 16-288 U/ml
• 7-11 years old 136-385 IU/ml
• 11-12 years old 136-440 U/ml
• 13-14 years 165-616 IU/ml
• 15-18 years 134-836 U/ml
• 18-25 years 202-433 U/ml
• 26-85 years 135-449 U/ml

women

• 1-3 years 11-206 U/ml
• 3-7 years 70-316 IU/ml
• 7-11 years old 123-396 IU/ml
• 11-12 years old 191-462 U/ml
• 13-14 years 286-660 IU/ml
• 15-18 years 152-660 U/ml
• 18-25 years 231-550 U/ml
• 26-85 years 135-449 U/ml

The state of the pituitary-adrenal system

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

• in the morning (at 8-00) up to 22 pmol/l
• in the evening (at 22-00) up to 6 pmol / l

cortisol

• in the morning (at 8-00) 200-700 nmol/l (70-250 ng/l)
• in the evening (at 20-00) 50-250 nmol/l (20-90 ng/ml)

During pregnancy, cortisol levels are elevated.

Free cortisol in urine 30-300 nmol/day (10-100 mcg/day)

17-hydroxycorticocostcroids (17-OKS) in urine 5.2-13.2 µmol/day

DEA sulfate (DHEA sulfate, DEA-S, DHEA-S)

• newborns 1.7-3.6 µg/ml or 4.4-9.4 µmol/l
• boys 1 month-5 years old 0.01-0.41 µg/ml or 0.03-1.1 µmol/l
• girls 1 month-5 years old 0.05-0.55 mcg/ml or 0.1-1.5 mcmol/l
• boys 6-9 years old 0.025-1.45 µg/ml or 0.07-3.9 µmol/l
• girls 6-9 years old 0.025-1.40 µg/ml or 0.07-3.8 µmol/l
• boys 10-11 years old 0.15-1.15 mcg/ml or 0.4-3.1 mcmol/l
• girls 10-11 years old 0.15-2.6 µg/ml or 0.4-7.0 µmol/l
• boys 12-17 years old 0.2-5.55 µg/ml or 0.5-15.0 µmol/l
• girls 12-17 years old 0.2-5.55 µg/ml or 0.5-15.0 µmol/l
• adults 19-30 years old men 1.26-6.19 µg/ml or 3.4-16.7 µmol/l
• women 0.29-7.91 µg/ml or 0.8-21.1 µmol/l
• adults 31-50 years old men 0.59-4.52 µg/ml or 1.6-12.2 µmol/l
• women 0.12-3.79 µg/ml or 0.8-10.2 µmol/l
• adults 51-60 years old men 0.22-4.13 µg/ml or 0.5-11.1 µmol/l
• women 0.8-3.9 µg/ml or 2.1-10.1 µmol/l
• over 61 years old men 0.10-2.85 mcg / ml or 0.3-7.7 mcmol / l
• women 0.1-0.6 µg/ml or 0.32-1.6 µmol/l
• during pregnancy 0.2-1.2 µg/ml or 0.5-3.1 µmol/l

17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP)

• in adolescence, boys 0.1-0.3 ng / ml
• girls 0.2-0.5 ng/ml
• women follicular phase 0.2-1.0 ng/ml
• luteal phase 1.0-4.0 ng/ml
• postmenopausal less than 0.2 ng/ml

17-ketosteroids (17-KS, 17-KS)

• under 5 years 0-1.0 mg / day
• 15-16 years 1-10 mg/day
• 20-40 years old women 5-14 mg/day
• men 9-17 mg/day

After 40 years, the level of 17 CS in the urine constantly decreases

thyroid condition

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

• newborns 3-20 mIU/l
• adults 0.2-3.2 mIU/l

Triiodothyronine total (T3) 1.2-3.16 pmol / l

Thyroxine total (T4)

• newborns 100-250 nmol/l
• 1-5 years 94-194 nmol/l
• 6-10 years old 83-172 nmol/l
• 11-60 years old 60-155 nmol/l
• after 60 years men 60-129 nmol/l
• women 71-135 nmol/l

Triiodothyronine free (st3) 4.4-9.3 pmol/l

Thyroxine free (st4) 10-24 pmol/l

thyroglobulin (TG) 0-50 ng/ml

Thyroxine-binding globulin (TSG) 13.6-27.2 mg/l
during pregnancy for more than 5 months 56-102 mg / l

TSH binding capacity 100-250 µg/l

Calcitonin 5.5-28 pmol/l

The state of the reproductive system

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

• under 11 years old less than 2 U/l
• women: follicular phase 4-10 U/l
• ovulation phase 10-25 U/l
• luteal phase 2-8 U/l
• menopause period 18-150 U/l
• men 2-10 U/l

luteinizing hormone (LH)

• under 11 years old 1-14 U/l
• women: follicular phase 1-20 U/l
• ovulation phase 26-94 U/l
• luteal phase 0.61-16.3 U/l
• menopause period 13-80 U/l
• men 2-9 U/l

Prolactin

• up to 10 years 91-256 mIU / l
• women 61-512 mIU/l
• pregnant women 12 weeks 500-2000 mIU/l
• 13-28 weeks 2000-6000 mIU/l
• 29-40 weeks 4000-10,000 mIU/l
• men 58-475 mIU/l

Estradiol

• under 11 years 5-21 pg/ml
• women: follicular phase 5-53 pg/ml
• ovulation phase 90-299 pg/ml
• luteal phase 11-116 pg/ml
• menopausal period 5-46 pg/ml
• men 19-51 pg/ml

Progesterone

women:

• follicular phase 0.3-0.7 µg/l
• ovulation phase 0.7-1.6 mcg/l
• luteal phase 4.7-18.0 µg/l
• menopause 0.06-1.3 mcg/l
• pregnant women 9-16 weeks 15-40 mcg/l
• 16-18 weeks 20-80 mcg/l
• 28-30 weeks 55-155 mcg/l
• prenatal period 110-250 mcg/l

men 0.2-1.4 mcg/l

Testosterone

• children up to puberty 0.06-0.2 mcg/l
• women 0.1-1.1 µg/l
• men 20-39 years old 2.6-11 mcg/l
• 40-55 years old 2.0-6.0 mcg/l
• over 55 years old 1.7-5.2 mcg/l

Steroid-binding (sex-binding) globulin (SHB)

• men 14.9-103 nmol/l
• women 18.6-117 nmol/l
• during pregnancy 30-120 nmol / l

Hormones of the placenta

Beta human chorionic gonadotropin (beta hCG, beta hCG)

• in blood serum in adults up to 5 IU / l
• in the urine of pregnant women 6 weeks 13,000 IU/l
• 8 weeks 30,000 IU/l
• 12-14 weeks 105,000 IU/l
• 16 weeks 46,000 IU/l
• more than 16 weeks 5000-20 000 IU/l

Estriol free (E3)

in the blood of pregnant women

• 28-30 weeks 3.2-12.0 ng/ml
• 30-32 weeks 3.6-14.0 ng/ml
• 32-34 weeks 4.6-17.0 ng/ml
• 34-36 weeks 5.1-22.0 ng/ml
• 36-38 weeks 7.2-29.0 ng/ml
• 38-40 weeks 7.8-37.0 ng/ml

State of hormonal systems regulating sodium and water metabolism

antidiuretic hormone - the norm depends on the osmolarity of the plasma, this factor is taken into account when evaluating the results

Osmolarity blood ADH

• 270-280 less than 1.5
• 280-285 less than 2.5
• 285-290 1-5
• 290-295 2-7
• 295-300 4-12

Renin

• when taking blood lying down 2.1-4.3 ng / ml
• when taking blood while standing 5.0-13.6 ng / ml

Angiotensin 1

• 11-88 pg/ml

Angiotensin 2

• in venous blood 6-27 pg/ml
• in arterial blood 12-36 pg/ml

Aldosterone

• in newborns 1060-5480 pmol/l (38-200 ng/dl)
• up to 6 months 500-4450 pmol/l (18-160 ng/dl)
• in adults 100-400 pmol/l (4-15 ng/dl)

The state of the epiphysis

Melatonin

• in the morning 20 ng/ml
• in the evening 55 ng/ml

The state of the hormonal system of calcium regulation

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

• 8-4 ng/l

Calcitriol

• 25-45 pg/ml (60-108 pmol/l)

Osteocalcin

• children 39.1-90.3 ng/ml
• women 10.7-32.3 ng/ml
• men 14.9-35.3 ng/ml

Total hydroxyproline in urine

• 1-5 years 20-65 mg/day or 0.15-0.49 mmol/day
• 6-10 years 35-99 mg/day or 0.27-0.75 mmol/day
• 11-14 years 63-180 mg/day or 0.48-1.37 mmol/day
• 18-21 years 20-55 mg/day or 0.15-0.42 mmol/day
• 22-40 years 15-42 mg/day or 0.11-0.32 mmol/day
• 41 and older 15-43 mg/day or 0.11-0.33 mmol/day

The state of the sympathetic-adrenal system

• Adrenaline in the blood less than 88 mcg/l
• Norepinephrine in the blood 104-548 µg/l
• Adrenaline in urine up to 20 mcg/day
• Norepinephrine in urine up to 90 mcg/day
• Metanephrines common in urine 2-345 mcg/day
• Normetanephrines common in urine 30-440 mcg/day
• Vanillylmandelic acid in urine up to 35 µmol/day (up to 7 mg/day)

pancreatic function

• Insulin 3-17 µU/ml
• Proinsulin 1-94 pmol/l
• C-peptide 0.5-3.0 ng/ml
• Glucagon 60-200 pg/ml
• Somatostatin 10-25 ng/l

Pancreatic peptide (PP)

• 20-29 years old 11.9-13.9 pmol/l
• 30-39 years old 24.5-30.3 pmol/l
• 40-49 years old 36.2-42.4 pmol/l
• 50-59 years old 36.4-49.8 pmol/l
• 60-69 years old 42.6-56.0 pmol/l

Hormonal function of the gastrointestinal tract

• Gastrin less than 100 pg / ml (average 14.5-47.5 pg / ml)
• Secretin 29-45 pg/ml
• Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide 20-53 pg/ml
• Serotonin 0.22-2.05 µmol/l (40-80 µg/l)

Histamine

• in whole blood 180-900 nmol/l (20-100 µg/l)
• in blood plasma 250-350 nmol/l (300-400 mcg/l)

The state of the hormonal system of regulation of erythropoiesis

Erythropoietin

• in men 5.6-28.9 U / l
• in women 8.0-30.0 U/l

Prenatal (prenatal) diagnosis of congenital and hereditary diseases

Alpha fetoprotein (AFP)

gestational age:

• 13-14 weeks 20.0 IU/ml
• 15-16 weeks 30.8 IU/ml
• 17-18 weeks 39.4 IU/ml
• 19-20 weeks 51.0 IU/ml
• 21-22 weeks 66.7 IU/ml
• 23-24 weeks 90.4 IU/ml

Free chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, hCG)

gestational age:

• 13-14 weeks 67.2 IU/ml
• 15-16 weeks 30.0 IU/ml
• 17-18 weeks 25.6 IU/ml
• 19-20 weeks 19.7 IU/ml
• 21-22 weeks 18.8 IU/ml
• 23-24 weeks 17.4 IU/ml

Postnatal (postpartum) diagnosis of congenital diseases

neonatal thyroid-stimulating hormone(test for congenital hypothyroidism - reduced thyroid function)

• newborns up to 20 mU/l
• 1st day 11.6-35.9 mU/l
• 2nd day 8.3-19.8 mU/l
• 3rd day 1.0-10.9 mU/l
• 4-6th day 1.2-5.8 mU/l

Neonatal 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone - 17-OHP(test for congenital adrenogenital syndrome)

• cord blood 9-50 ng/ml
• preterm 0.26-5.68 ng/ml
• Day 1-3 0.07-0.77 ng/ml

Neonatal immunoreactive trypsin - IRT(test for congenital cystic fibrosis)

• blood from the umbilical cord 21.4-25.2 mcg/l
• 0-6 months 25.9-36.8 µg/l
• 6-12 months 30.2-44.0 µg/l
• 1-3 years 28.0-31.6 µg/l
• 3-5 years 25.1-31.5 mcg/l
• 5-7 years old 32.1-39.3 µg/l
• 7-10 years old 32.7-37.1 µg/l
• adults 22.2-44.4 mcg/l

Research on phenylketonemia

• the content of phenylketones in the blood in children up to 0.56 mmol / l

Test for galactosemia

• the content of galactose in the blood in children up to 0.56 mmol / l. published .

If you have any questions, ask them

P.S. And remember, just by changing your consumption, we are changing the world together! © econet

Creatinine is creatine anhydride (methylguanidineacetic acid) and is a form of elimination produced in muscle tissue. Creatine is synthesized in the liver, and after release, it enters the muscle tissue by 98%, where phosphorylation occurs, and in this form plays an important role in the storage of muscle energy. When this muscle energy is needed for metabolic processes, phosphocreatine is broken down to creatinine. The amount of creatine converted to creatinine is maintained at a constant level, which is directly related to the body's muscle mass. In men, 1.5% of creatine stores are converted daily into creatinine. Creatine obtained from food (especially from meat) increases creatine and creatinine stores. Reducing protein intake reduces creatinine levels in the absence of the amino acids arginine and glycine, precursors of creatine. Creatinine is a persistent nitrogenous constituent of the blood, independent of most foods, exercise, circadian rhythms, or other biological constants, and is associated with muscle metabolism. Impaired renal function reduces creatinine excretion, causing an increase in serum creatinine. Thus, creatinine concentrations approximately characterize the level of glomerular filtration. The main value of determining serum creatinine is the diagnosis of renal failure. Serum creatinine is a more specific and more sensitive indicator of kidney function than urea. However, in chronic kidney disease, it is used to determine both serum creatinine and urea, in combination with BUN.

Material: deoxygenated blood.

Test tube: vacutainer with/without anticoagulant with/without gel phase.

Processing conditions and sample stability: serum remains stable for 7 days at

2-8°C. Archived serum can be stored at -20°C for up to 1 month. Must be avoided

double defrosting and re-freezing!

Method: kinetic.

Analyzer: Cobas 6000 (with 501 modules).

Test systems: Roche Diagnostics (Switzerland).

Reference values ​​in the laboratory "SYNEVO Ukraine", µmol/l:

Children:

Newborns: 21.0-75.0.

2-12 months: 15.0-37.0.

1-3 years: 21.0-36.0.

3-5 years: 27.0-42.0.

5-7 years: 28.0-52.0.

7-9 years: 35.0-53.0.

9-11 years: 34.0-65.0.

11-13 years old: 46.0-70.0.

13-15 years old: 50.0-77.0.

Women: 44.0-80.0.

Men: 62.0-106.0.

Conversion factor:

µmol/L x 0.0113 = mg/dL.

µmol/l x 0.001 = mmol/l.

The main indications for the appointment of the analysis: serum creatinine is determined at the first examination in patients with or without symptoms, in patients with symptoms of urinary tract disease, in patients with arterial hypertension, with acute and chronic kidney disease, non-renal disease, diarrhea, vomiting, profuse sweating, acute disease, after surgery or in patients requiring intensive care, with sepsis, shock, multiple injuries, hemodialysis, metabolic disorders (diabetes mellitus, hyperuricemia), pregnancy, diseases with increased protein metabolism (multiple myeloma, acromegaly), in the treatment of nephrotoxic drugs.

Interpretation of results

Advanced level:

Acute or chronic diseases kidneys.

Obstruction of the urinary tract (postrenal azotemia).

Reduced renal perfusion (prerenal azotemia).

Congestive heart failure.

shock states.

Dehydration.

Muscle diseases (myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy, poliomyelitis).

Rhabdomyolysis.

Hyperthyroidism.

Acromegaly.

Reduced level:

Pregnancy.

Decreased muscle mass.

Lack of protein in the diet.

Severe liver disease.

Interfering factors:

Higher levels are recorded in men and in individuals with large muscle mass, the same concentrations of creatinine in young and old people do not mean the same level of glomerular filtration (creatinine clearance decreases and creatinine formation decreases in old age). In conditions of reduced renal perfusion, increases in serum creatinine occur more slowly than increases in urea. Since there is a forced decline in kidney function by 50% with an increase in creatinine values, creatinine cannot be considered as a sensitive indicator for mild or moderate kidney damage.

The serum creatinine level can be used to assess glomerular filtration only under conditions of balance, when the rate of synthesis of creatinine is equal to the rate of its elimination. To check this condition, it is necessary to carry out two determinations with an interval of 24 hours; differences greater than 10% may indicate that such a balance is not present. In impaired renal function, glomerular filtration rate may be overestimated due to serum creatinine, since creatinine elimination is independent of glomerular filtration and tubular secretion, and creatinine is also eliminated through the intestinal mucosa, apparently metabolized by bacterial creatine kinases.

Medicines

Increase:

Acebutolol, ascorbic acid, nalidixic acid, acyclovir, alkaline antacids, amiodarone, amphotericin B, asparaginase, aspirin, azithromycin, barbiturates, captopril, carbamazepine, cefazolin, cefixime, cefotetan, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, cimetidine, ciprofloxacin, diuretics, enalapril, ethambutol, gentamicin, streptokinase, streptomycin, triamterene, triazolam, trimethoprim, vasopressin.

Reduce: glucocorticoids

where Mr is the relative molecular weight.

When using this formula, the following units of the amount of substance are obtained (Table 4)

Table 4

Converting units of mass to units of quantity of matter.

Table 5

Conversion coefficients for units of enzyme activity.

Building principles laboratory methods research.
General rules for the preparation of reagents.

The choice, adjustment and development of a research method is one of the most important stages of laboratory work. Although the general principles of this stage are the same in all sections of laboratory medicine, however, each section has its own specifics. The choice of method is determined by its properties and their correspondence clinical tasks this medical institution and the material and technical capabilities of the laboratory. Wherever possible, unified or standardized methods should be used, the properties of which have been tested in qualified (expert) laboratories, and the protocols for the implementation of which are clearly defined. When making certain modifications, taking into account the available equipment and the experience of the laboratory staff, these deviations from the standard protocol should be documented in detail and reflected in the Clinical Quality Manual. laboratory research"of this laboratory, and the accuracy of the research results must comply with established standards. The details of establishing a research method largely depend on whether we are talking about manual or automated work, ready-made sets of reagents are used, or they should be prepared directly in the laboratory.

At the workplace, you should have a methodology protocol, designed in such a way that each new procedure begins on a new line, and the procedures themselves are numbered in the order in which they are performed. It is useful in the description of the methodology to give recipes for all reagents used in the analysis process, indicating the qualification of their purity.

It is most convenient and easiest to set up a method if you have a ready-made set of reagents of the required quality, factory-made; in the laboratory, it remains only to prepare the solutions according to the factory instructions. If such kits are not available to the laboratory or they are not available to the laboratory due to their cost, reagents obtained from different sources must be used. In this case, it may not be known whether these reagents meet the quality requirements of the established method. In this case, it may be necessary to check the quality of reagents, and sometimes purification or even synthesis of the simplest compounds. Theoretically, there are no completely pure reagents; each preparation contains a certain amount of impurities. In practice, it is only important that they do not interfere with this analysis. Due to the fact that different batches of reagents may contain different impurities that are not always specified in the standard for a given reagent, it may turn out that one batch is suitable for a particular type of research, and the other is not suitable, although both have the same qualifications. Therefore, each new batch of reagents must be tested for suitability. Reagent preparation begins with weighing. It is necessary to prepare such an amount that can be consumed in a month (the largest - in 2 months), but at the same time, the sample should not be less than 20-30 mg, since otherwise accurate weighing is very complicated. When preparing calibration solutions, prescriptions usually indicate round numbers, for example, 100 mg or 0.2 mmol, which must be dissolved in 50 or 100 ml of solvent. If the reagent is in short supply or the sample is small, it is more convenient to accurately weigh the amount of reagent that immediately hit the scales: for example, instead of 10 mg, take 9.3 mg and dissolve them in a smaller amount of water (in this case, not in 100 ml, but in 93 ml). Solutions are usually measured using volumetric flasks - volumetric flasks and cylinders, but it is sometimes convenient to weigh the solvent on a balance, especially if large and non-circular quantities (for example, 1450 ml) are to be measured. This is often more accurate than measuring multiple volumes; we must not only forget that the relative density of many solutions is different from 1.

Convert Millimole per liter to Micromole per liter (mmol/L to µmol/L):

1. Select the desired category from the list, in this case "Molar Concentration".
2. Enter the value to convert. Basic arithmetic operations such as addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*, x), division (/, :, ÷), exponential (^), brackets, and π (number of pi) are currently supported .
3. From the selection list, choose the unit that corresponds to the value you want to convert, in this case "millimoles per liter [mmol/l]".
4. Finally, choose the unit you want the value to be converted to, in this case "micromoles per liter [µmol/l]".
5. After the result of the operation is displayed, and whenever appropriate, there is an option to round the result to a certain number of decimal places.

With this calculator, you can enter the value to be converted along with the original measurement unit, such as "342 millimoles per litre". In this case, either the full name of the unit of measure or its abbreviation can be used, for example, "millimoles per liter" or "mmol/l". After you enter the unit of measure to be converted, the calculator determines the category of the measurement, in this case "Molar concentration". It then converts the entered value to all relevant units of measure that it knows. In the list of results, you will undoubtedly find the converted value you need. Alternatively, the value to be converted can be entered as follows: "33 mmol/l to µmol/l" or "15 mmol/l into µmol/l" or "1 millimoles per liter -> micromoles per liter" or "54 mmol/l = µmol/l" or "44 millimoles per liter to µmol/l" or "15 mmol/l to micromoles per liter" or 2 millimoles per liter into micromoles per liter". In this case, the calculator will also immediately understand which unit of measure to convert the original value to. Regardless of which of these options is used, the need for difficult search for the desired value in long selection lists with countless categories and countless supported units of measure is eliminated. All this is what a calculator does for us, which copes with its task in a split second.

In addition, the calculator allows you to use mathematical formulas. As a result, not only numbers such as "(1 * 56) mmol/l" are taken into account. You can even use multiple units of measure directly in the conversion field. For example, such a combination might look like this: "342 millimoles per liter + 1026 micromoles per liter" or "92mm x 29cm x 24dm = ? cm^3". Units of measurement united in this way, of course, must correspond to each other and make sense in a given combination.

If you check the box next to the option "Numbers in scientific notation", then the answer will be presented as an exponential function. For example, 1.807530847749 × 1028 . In this form, the number representation is divided into the exponent, here 28, and the actual number, here 1.807530847749. In devices that have handicapped displaying numbers (for example, pocket calculators), the method of writing numbers 1.807 530 847 749 E+28 is also used. In particular, it makes it easier to see very large and very small numbers. If this cell is not checked, then the result is displayed using the normal notation for numbers. In the example above, it would look like this: 18,075,308,477,490,000,000,000,000,000. Regardless of how the result is presented, this calculator has a maximum precision of 14 decimal places. This accuracy should be sufficient for most purposes.

How many micromoles per liter to 1 millimoles per liter?

1 millimol per liter [mmol/L] = 1,000 micromoles per liter [µmol/L] - Measurement calculator that can be used to convert among other things millimoles per liter to micromoles per liter.

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1 microgram per liter [µg/L] = 1000 nanograms per liter [ng/L]

Initial value

Converted value

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More about density

General information

Density is a property that determines the amount of a substance by mass per unit volume. In the SI system, density is measured in kg / m³, but other units are also used, such as g / cm³, kg / l and others. In everyday life, two equivalent values ​​\u200b\u200bare most often used: g / cm³ and kg / ml.

Factors affecting the density of matter

The density of the same substance depends on temperature and pressure. Generally, the higher the pressure, the tighter the molecules are packed, which increases the density. In most cases, an increase in temperature, on the contrary, increases the distance between molecules and reduces the density. In some cases, this relationship is reversed. The density of ice, for example, is less than the density of water, despite the fact that ice colder than water. This can be explained by the molecular structure of ice. Many substances, when moving from a liquid to a solid state of aggregation, change their molecular structure so that the distance between molecules decreases, and the density, respectively, increases. During the formation of ice, the molecules line up in a crystal structure and the distance between them, on the contrary, increases. In this case, the attraction between molecules also changes, the density decreases, and the volume increases. In winter, you must not forget about this property of ice - if the water in the water pipes freezes, then they can break.

Density of water

If the density of the material from which the object is made is greater than the density of water, then it is completely immersed in water. Materials with a density less than that of water, on the contrary, float to the surface. A good example is ice, which is less dense than water and floats in a glass to the surface of water and other drinks that are mostly water. We often use this property of substances in everyday life. For example, in the construction of ship hulls, materials with a density higher than that of water are used. Since materials with a density higher than that of water sink, air-filled cavities are always created in the ship's hull, since the density of air is much lower than that of water. On the other hand, sometimes it is necessary that the object sink in water - for this, materials with a higher density than water are chosen. For example, in order to sink light bait to a sufficient depth while fishing, anglers tie a sinker made of materials having a high density, such as lead, to the fishing line.

Oil, fat and oil remain on the surface of the water because their density is lower than that of water. Thanks to this property, oil spilled in the ocean is much easier to clean up. If it mixed with water or sank to the seabed, it would cause even more damage to the marine ecosystem. This property is also used in cooking, but not oil, of course, but fat. For example, it is very easy to remove excess fat from soup as it floats to the surface. If the soup is cooled in the refrigerator, the fat solidifies, and it is even easier to remove it from the surface with a spoon, slotted spoon, or even a fork. In the same way, it is removed from jelly and aspic. This reduces the calorie and cholesterol content of the product.

Information about the density of liquids is also used during the preparation of drinks. Layered cocktails are made from liquids of different densities. Typically, lower density liquids are carefully poured onto higher density liquids. You can also use a glass cocktail stick or bar spoon and slowly pour the liquid over them. If you do not rush and do everything carefully, you will get a beautiful multi-layered drink. This method can also be used with jellies or aspic dishes, although if time permits it is easier to cool each layer separately, pouring in a new layer only after the bottom layer has hardened.

In some cases, a lower fat density, on the contrary, interferes. Products with a high fat content often do not mix well with water and form a separate layer, thus impairing not only the appearance, but also the taste of the product. For example, in cold desserts and fruit smoothies, fatty dairy products are sometimes separated from non-fat dairy products such as water, ice, and fruit.

Salt water density

The density of water depends on the content of impurities in it. Rarely found in nature and in everyday life pure water H 2 O without impurities - most often it contains salts. Good example - sea ​​water. Its density is higher than that of fresh water, so fresh water usually "floats" on the surface of salt water. Of course, it is difficult to see this phenomenon under normal conditions, but if fresh water is enclosed in a shell, for example, in a rubber ball, then this is clearly visible, since this ball floats to the surface. Our body is also a kind of shell filled with fresh water. We are made up of 45% to 75% water - this percentage decreases with age and with an increase in weight and body fat. Fat content of at least 5% of body weight. At healthy people up to 10% body fat if they exercise a lot, up to 20% if they are of normal weight, and 25% or more if they are obese.

If we try not to swim, but simply to stay on the surface of the water, we will notice that it is easier to do this in salt water, since its density is higher than the density fresh water and fat contained in our body. The concentration of salt in the Dead Sea is 7 times the average concentration of salt in the oceans of the world, and it is known throughout the world for the fact that people can easily float on the surface of the water and not drown. Although, to think that it is impossible to die in this sea is a mistake. In fact, every year people die in this sea. The high salt content makes water dangerous if it enters the mouth, nose, and eyes. If you swallow such water, you can get a chemical burn - in severe cases, such unfortunate swimmers are hospitalized.

Air density

Just as in the case of water, bodies with a density below that of air are positively buoyant, that is, they take off. A good example of such a substance is helium. Its density is 0.000178 g/cm³, while the density of air is approximately 0.001293 g/cm³. You can see how helium takes off in the air if you fill a balloon with it.

The density of air decreases as its temperature increases. This property of hot air is used in balloons. Ball pictured in ancient city Maya Teotihuocán in Mexico is filled with hot air, which has a density less than that of the surrounding cold morning air. That is why the ball flies at a sufficiently high altitude. While the ball flies over the pyramids, the air in it cools down, and it is heated again with a gas burner.

Density calculation

Often the density of substances is indicated for standard conditions, that is, for a temperature of 0 ° C and a pressure of 100 kPa. In educational and reference manuals, you can usually find such a density for substances that are often found in nature. Some examples are shown in the table below. In some cases, the table is not enough and the density must be calculated manually. In this case, the mass is divided by the volume of the body. Mass is easy to find with a balance. To find out the volume of a standard geometric body, you can use formulas to calculate the volume. The volume of liquids and solids can be found by filling the measuring cup with the substance. For more complex calculations, the liquid displacement method is used.

Liquid displacement method

To calculate the volume in this way, first pour a certain amount of water into a measuring vessel and place the body, the volume of which must be calculated, until completely immersed. The volume of a body is equal to the difference between the volume of water without the body and with it. It is believed that this rule was derived by Archimedes. It is possible to measure volume in this way only if the body does not absorb water and does not deteriorate from water. For example, we will not measure the volume of a camera or fabric using the liquid displacement method.

It is not known how much this legend reflects real events, but it is believed that King Hieron II gave Archimedes the task of determining whether his crown was made of pure gold. The king suspected that his goldsmith had stolen some of the gold allocated for the crown and instead made the crown out of a cheaper alloy. Archimedes could easily determine this volume by melting the crown, but the king ordered him to find a way to do this without damaging the crowns. It is believed that Archimedes found the solution to this problem while taking a bath. Having plunged into the water, he noticed that his body displaced a certain amount of water, and realized that the volume of water displaced is equal to the volume of the body in water.

hollow bodies

Some natural and artificial materials are made up of particles that are hollow inside, or of particles so small that these substances behave like liquids. In the second case, an empty space remains between the particles, filled with air, liquid, or other substance. Sometimes this place remains empty, that is, it is filled with vacuum. Examples of such substances are sand, salt, grain, snow and gravel. The volume of such materials can be determined by measuring the total volume and subtracting from it the volume of voids determined by geometric calculations. This method is convenient if the shape of the particles is more or less uniform.

For some materials, the amount of empty space depends on how tightly packed the particles are. This complicates the calculations, since it is not always easy to determine how much empty space there is between particles.

Table of densities of commonly occurring substances in nature

Density and Mass

In some industries, such as aviation, it is necessary to use materials that are as light as possible. Since low density materials also have low mass, in such situations, try to use materials with the lowest density. So, for example, the density of aluminum is only 2.7 g/cm³, while the density of steel is from 7.75 to 8.05 g/cm³. It is due to the low density that 80% of aircraft bodies use aluminum and its alloys. Of course, at the same time, one should not forget about strength - today, few people make aircraft from wood, leather, and other light but low-strength materials.

Black holes

On the other hand, the higher the mass of a substance per given volume, the higher the density. Black holes are an example physical bodies with a very small volume and a huge mass, and, accordingly, a huge density. Such an astronomical body absorbs light and other bodies that are close enough to it. The largest black holes are called supermassive.

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