The atomic bomb was dropped on Japan. Hiroshima and Nagasaki

An American B-29 Superfortress bomber named "Enola Gay" took off from Tinian Island early on August 6 with a single 4,000 kg uranium bomb called "Little Boy". At 8:15 a.m., the "baby" bomb was dropped from a height of 9,400 m above the city and free fall 57 seconds. At the moment of detonation, a small explosion provoked the explosion of 64 kg of uranium. Of these 64 kg, only 7 kg passed the splitting stage, and of this mass, only 600 mg turned into energy - explosive energy that burned everything in its path for several kilometers, leveling the city with a blast wave, starting a series of fires and plunging all living things into radiation flow. It is believed that about 70,000 people died immediately, another 70,000 died from injuries and radiation by 1950. Today in Hiroshima, near the epicenter of the explosion, there is a memorial museum, the purpose of which is to promote the idea that nuclear weapons cease to exist forever.

May 1945: selection of targets.

During its second meeting at Los Alamos (May 10-11, 1945), the Targeting Committee recommended as targets for the use of atomic weapons Kyoto (the largest industrial center), Hiroshima (the center of army warehouses and a military port), Yokohama (the center of military industry), Kokuru (the largest military arsenal) and Niigata (military port and engineering center). The committee rejected the idea of ​​using these weapons against a purely military target, as there was a chance of overshooting a small area not surrounded by a vast urban area.
When choosing a goal, great importance was attached to psychological factors, such as:
achieving maximum psychological effect against Japan,
the first use of the weapon must be significant enough for international recognition of its importance. The committee pointed out that Kyoto's choice was supported by the fact that its population had a higher level of education and thus were better able to appreciate the value of weapons. Hiroshima, on the other hand, was of such a size and location that, given the focusing effect of the hills surrounding it, the force of the explosion could be increased.
US Secretary of War Henry Stimson struck Kyoto off the list due to the city's cultural significance. According to Professor Edwin O. Reischauer, Stimson "knew and appreciated Kyoto from his honeymoon there decades ago."

Pictured is Secretary of War Henry Stimson.

On July 16, the world's first successful test of an atomic weapon was carried out at a test site in New Mexico. The power of the explosion was about 21 kilotons of TNT.
On July 24, during the Potsdam Conference, US President Harry Truman informed Stalin that the United States had a new weapon of unprecedented destructive power. Truman did not specify that he was referring specifically to atomic weapons. According to Truman's memoirs, Stalin showed little interest, remarking only that he was glad and hoped that the US could use him effectively against the Japanese. Churchill, who carefully observed Stalin's reaction, remained of the opinion that Stalin did not understand true meaning Truman's words and ignored him. At the same time, according to Zhukov's memoirs, Stalin perfectly understood everything, but did not show it, and in a conversation with Molotov after the meeting he noted that "It will be necessary to talk with Kurchatov about speeding up our work." After the declassification of the operation of the American intelligence services "Venona", it became known that Soviet agents had long been reporting on the development nuclear weapons. According to some reports, agent Theodor Hall, a few days before the Potsdam conference, even announced the planned date for the first nuclear test. This may explain why Stalin took Truman's message calmly. Hall had been working for Soviet intelligence since 1944.
On July 25, Truman approved the order, beginning August 3, to bomb one of the following targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, or Nagasaki, as soon as the weather allowed, and in the future, the following cities, as bombs arrived.
On July 26, the governments of the United States, Britain, and China signed the Potsdam Declaration, which set out the demand for Japan's unconditional surrender. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the declaration.
The next day, Japanese newspapers reported that the declaration, which had been broadcast over the radio and scattered in leaflets from airplanes, had been rejected. The Japanese government has not expressed a desire to accept the ultimatum. On July 28, Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki stated at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was nothing more than the old arguments of the Cairo Declaration in a new wrapper, and demanded that the government ignore it.
Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet response to the evasive diplomatic moves [what?] of the Japanese, did not change the decision of the government. On July 31, in a conversation with Koichi Kido, he made it clear that the imperial power must be protected at all costs.

An aerial view of Hiroshima shortly before the bomb was dropped on the city in August 1945. Shown here is a densely populated area of ​​the city on the Motoyasu River.

Preparing for the bombing

During May-June 1945, the American 509th Combined Aviation Group arrived on Tinian Island. The group's base area on the island was a few miles from the rest of the units and was carefully guarded.
On July 26, the Indianapolis cruiser delivered the Little Boy atomic bomb to Tinian.
On July 28, the Chief of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, George Marshall, signed the order for the combat use of nuclear weapons. This order, drafted by the head of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie Groves, ordered a nuclear strike "on any day after the third of August, as soon as weather conditions permit." On July 29, US Strategic Air Command General Karl Spaats arrived on Tinian, delivering Marshall's order to the island.
On July 28 and August 2, components of the Fat Man atomic bomb were brought to Tinian by planes.

Commander A.F. Birch (left) numbers the bomb, codenamed "Kid", physicist Dr. Ramsey (right) will receive Nobel Prize in physics in 1989.

"Kid" was 3 m long and weighed 4,000 kg, but contained only 64 kg of uranium, which was used to provoke a chain of atomic reactions and the subsequent explosion.

Hiroshima during World War II.

Hiroshima was located on a flat area, slightly above sea level at the mouth of the Ota River, on 6 islands connected by 81 bridges. The population of the city before the war was over 340 thousand people, which made Hiroshima the seventh largest city in Japan. The city was the headquarters of the Fifth Division and the Second Main Army of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata, who commanded the defense of all of Southern Japan. Hiroshima was an important supply base for the Japanese army.
In Hiroshima (as well as in Nagasaki), most buildings were one- and two-story wooden buildings with tiled roofs. Factories were located on the outskirts of the city. Outdated fire equipment and insufficient training of personnel created a high fire hazard even in peacetime.
The population of Hiroshima peaked at 380,000 during the course of the war, but before the bombing, the population gradually decreased due to systematic evacuations ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was about 245 thousand people.

Pictured is a Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber of the US Army "Enola Gay"

Bombardment

The main target of the first American nuclear bombing was Hiroshima (Kokura and Nagasaki were spares). Although Truman's order called for the atomic bombing to begin on August 3, cloud cover over the target prevented this until August 6.
On August 6, at 1:45 am, an American B-29 bomber under the command of the commander of the 509th mixed aviation regiment, Colonel Paul Tibbets, carrying the atomic bomb "Kid" on board, took off from Tinian Island, which was about 6 hours from Hiroshima. Tibbets' aircraft ("Enola Gay") flew as part of a formation that included six other aircraft: a spare aircraft ("Top Secret"), two controllers and three reconnaissance aircraft ("Jebit III", "Full House" and "Straight Flash"). Reconnaissance aircraft commanders sent to Nagasaki and Kokura reported significant cloud cover over these cities. The pilot of the third reconnaissance aircraft, Major Iserli, found out that the sky over Hiroshima was clear and sent a signal "Bomb the first target."
Around 7 a.m., a network of Japanese early warning radars detected the approach of several American aircraft heading towards southern Japan. An air raid alert was issued and radio broadcasts stopped in many cities, including Hiroshima. At about 08:00 a radar operator in Hiroshima determined that the number of incoming aircraft was very small—perhaps no more than three—and the air raid alert was called off. In order to save fuel and aircraft, the Japanese did not intercept small groups of American bombers. The standard message was broadcast over the radio that it would be wise to go to the bomb shelters if the B-29s were actually seen, and that it was not a raid that was expected, but just some kind of reconnaissance.
At 08:15 local time, the B-29, being at an altitude of over 9 km, dropped an atomic bomb on the center of Hiroshima. The fuse was set to a height of 600 meters above the surface; an explosion equivalent to 13 to 18 kilotons of TNT occurred 45 seconds after the release.
The first public announcement of the event came from Washington, DC, sixteen hours after the atomic attack on the Japanese city.

A photo taken from one of two American bombers of the 509th Composite Group, shortly after 08:15, on August 5, 1945, shows smoke rising from the explosion over the city of Hiroshima.

When the portion of uranium in the bomb went through the fission stage, it was instantly converted into the energy of 15 kilotons of TNT, heating the massive fireball to a temperature of 3,980 degrees Celsius.

explosion effect

Those closest to the epicenter of the explosion died instantly, their bodies turned to coal. Birds flying past burned up in the air, and dry, flammable materials such as paper ignited up to 2 km from the epicenter. Light radiation burnt the dark pattern of clothing into the skin and left silhouettes. human bodies on the walls. People outside the houses described a blinding flash of light, which simultaneously came with a wave of suffocating heat. The blast wave, for all who were near the epicenter, followed almost immediately, often knocking down. Those in the buildings tended to avoid exposure to the light from the explosion, but not the blast—glass shards hit most rooms, and all but the strongest buildings collapsed. One teenager was blasted out of his house across the street as the house collapsed behind him. Within a few minutes, 90% of people who were at a distance of 800 meters or less from the epicenter died.
The blast wave shattered glass at a distance of up to 19 km. For those in the buildings, the typical first reaction was the thought of a direct hit from an aerial bomb.
Numerous small fires that simultaneously broke out in the city soon merged into one large fire tornado, which created a strong wind (speed of 50-60 km/h) directed towards the epicenter. The fiery tornado captured over 11 km² of the city, killing everyone who did not have time to get out within the first few minutes after the explosion.
According to the memoirs of Akiko Takakura, one of the few survivors who were at the time of the explosion at a distance of 300 m from the epicenter:
Three colors characterize for me the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima: black, red and brown. Black because the explosion cut off sunlight and plunged the world into darkness. Red was the color of blood flowing from wounded and broken people. It was also the color of the fires that burned everything in the city. Brown was the color of burnt, peeling skin exposed to light from the explosion.
A few days after the explosion, among the survivors, doctors began to notice the first symptoms of exposure. Soon, the number of deaths among survivors began to rise again as patients who appeared to be recovering began to suffer from this strange new disease. Deaths from radiation sickness peaked 3-4 weeks after the explosion and began to decline only after 7-8 weeks. Japanese doctors considered vomiting and diarrhea characteristic of radiation sickness to be symptoms of dysentery. The long-term health effects associated with exposure, such as an increased risk of cancer, haunted the survivors for the rest of their lives, as did the psychological shock of the explosion.

The shadow of a man who was sitting on the steps of the stairs in front of the bank entrance at the time of the explosion, 250 meters from the epicenter.

Loss and destruction

The number of deaths from the direct impact of the explosion ranged from 70 to 80 thousand people. By the end of 1945, due to the action of radioactive contamination and other post-effects of the explosion, the total number of deaths was from 90 to 166 thousand people. After 5 years, the total death toll, including deaths from cancer and other long-term effects of the explosion, could reach or even exceed 200,000 people.
According to official Japanese data as of March 31, 2013, there were 201,779 "hibakusha" alive - people affected by the effects of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This figure includes children born to women exposed to radiation from the explosions (mostly living in Japan at the time of counting). Of these, 1%, according to the Japanese government, had serious oncological diseases caused by radiation exposure after the bombings. The number of deaths as of August 31, 2013 is about 450 thousand: 286,818 in Hiroshima and 162,083 in Nagasaki.

View of the destroyed Hiroshima in the autumn of 1945 on one branch of the river passing through the delta on which the city stands

Complete destruction after the release of the atomic bomb.

Color photograph of the destroyed Hiroshima in March 1946.

The explosion destroyed the Okita plant in Hiroshima, Japan.

Look at how the sidewalk has been raised and how a drainpipe sticks out of the bridge. Scientists say this was due to the vacuum created by the pressure from the atomic explosion.

Twisted iron beams are all that remains of the theater building, located about 800 meters from the epicenter.

The Hiroshima Fire Department lost its only vehicle when the western station was destroyed by an atomic bomb. The station was located 1,200 meters from the epicenter.

No comment...

Nuclear pollution

The concept of "radioactive contamination" did not yet exist in those years, and therefore this issue was not even raised then. People continued to live and rebuild the destroyed buildings in the same place where they were before. Even the high mortality of the population in subsequent years, as well as diseases and genetic abnormalities in children born after the bombings, were not initially associated with exposure to radiation. The evacuation of the population from the contaminated areas was not carried out, since no one knew about the very presence of radioactive contamination.
It is rather difficult to give an accurate assessment of the degree of this contamination due to lack of information, however, since technically the first atomic bombs were relatively low-yield and imperfect (the "Kid" bomb, for example, contained 64 kg of uranium, of which only approximately 700 g reacted division), the level of pollution of the area could not be significant, although it posed a serious danger to the population. For comparison: at the time of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the reactor core contained several tons of fission products and transuranium elements - various radioactive isotopes accumulated during the operation of the reactor.

Terrible consequences...

Keloid scars on the back and shoulders of a victim of the Hiroshima bombing. The scars formed where the victim's skin was exposed to direct radiation.

Comparative preservation of some buildings

Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in the city were very stable (due to the risk of earthquakes) and their frame did not collapse, despite being quite close to the center of destruction in the city (the epicenter of the explosion). Thus stood the brick building of the Hiroshima Chamber of Industry (now commonly known as the "Genbaku Dome", or "Atomic Dome"), designed and built by Czech architect Jan Letzel, which was only 160 meters from the epicenter of the explosion (at the height of the bomb detonation 600 m above the surface). The ruins became the most famous exhibit of the Hiroshima atomic explosion and were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996, over objections raised by the US and Chinese governments.

A man looks at the ruins left after the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima.

People lived here

Visitors to the Hiroshima Memorial Park look at a panoramic view of the aftermath of the July 27, 2005 atomic explosion in Hiroshima.

A memorial flame in honor of the victims of the atomic explosion on a monument in the Hiroshima Memorial Park. The fire has been burning continuously since it was ignited on August 1, 1964. The fire will burn until "until all the atomic weapons of the earth are gone forever."

Contentarticles:

• The leadership of the commission put forward the main criterion for the objects of attack

The United States, with the consent of the United Kingdom, as provided for in the Quebec Treaty, dropped nuclear weapons on Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. It happened during the final stage of World War II. The two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the most brutal use of nuclear weapons in warfare in human history.

The war in Europe came to an end when Nazi Germany signed act of surrender May 8, 1945 of the year. The Japanese, faced with the same fate, refused to surrender unconditionally. And the war continued. Together with the United Kingdom and China, the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration of July 26, 1945. The Japanese Empire ignored this ultimatum.

How it all began: the prerequisites for the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Back in the autumn of 1944, a meeting took place between the leaders of the United States and the United Kingdom. At this meeting, the leaders discussed the possibility of using atomic weapons in the fight against Japan. A year before, the Manhattan Project was launched, which involved the development of nuclear (atomic) weapons. This project is now in full swing. The first samples of nuclear weapons were presented during the end of hostilities on European territory.

Reasons for the nuclear bombing of Japanese cities

In the summer of 1954, the United States became the sole owner of nuclear weapons throughout the world, which they inflicted catastrophic damage on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This weapon has become a kind of regulator of relations between the old rival of the United States of America - the Soviet Union. This was despite the fact that in the current situation in the world, both powers were allies against Nazi Germany.

Japan was defeated, but this did not prevent the people from being morally strong. The Japanese resistance was seen by many as fanatical. This was confirmed by the frequent cases when Japanese pilots went to ram other aircraft, ships or other military targets. Everything led to the fact that any enemy ground troops could be attacked by kamikaze pilots. The losses from such raids were expected to be heavy.
To a greater extent, this fact was cited as an argument for the use of nuclear weapons by the United States against the Empire of Japan. However, no mention was made of the Potsdam Conference. On it, as Churchill said, Stalin negotiated with the leadership of Japan on the establishment of a peaceful dialogue. For the most part, such proposals would go to both the United States and the United Kingdom. Japan was in a position where the industry was in a deplorable state, corruption was becoming something inevitable.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki as targets for attack

After the decision was made to attack Japan with nuclear weapons, the question arose of choosing a target. For this, a specialized committee was organized. Immediately after the signing of Germany's surrender, at the second meeting of the committee, the agenda of the meeting was the choice of cities for the atomic bombing.

The leadership of the commission put forward the main criterion for the objects of attack:
. Near military targets (which should have become the immediate target), civilian objects must also be located.
. Cities should be important objects in terms of the country's economy, strategic side and psychological importance.
. The hit target should cause a great resonance in the world.
. Cities damaged during the war did not fit. As a result of the atomic bombing, it is necessary to assess the degree of destructive power of the weapon.

As contenders for the purpose of testing nuclear weapons, was the city of Kyoto. It was a major industrial center and, as an ancient capital, had historical value. The next contender was the city of Hiroshima. Its value lay in the fact that it had military warehouses and a military port. The military industry was concentrated in the city of Yokohama. A large military arsenal was based in the city of Kokura. From the list of potential targets, the city of Kyoto was excluded, despite the fact that he met the requirements, Stimson was unable to destroy the city with its historical heritage. Hiroshima and Kokura were chosen. An air raid was carried out on the city of Nagasaki, which provoked the evacuation of children from the entire district. Now the object did not quite meet the requirements of the American leadership.

Later, there were long discussions about alternate targets. If for some reason the selected cities cannot be attacked. The city of Niigata was chosen as insurance for Hiroshima. Nagasaki was chosen for the city of Kokura.
Before the direct bombardment, careful preparations were made.

The beginning of the nuclear bombing of Japan
It is impossible to allocate a definite single date for the nuclear attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Both cities were attacked three days apart. The city of Hiroshima fell under the first blow. The military distinguished themselves with a peculiar sense of humor. The dropped bomb was called "Kid" and destroyed the city on June 6. The operation was commanded by Colonel Tibbets.

The pilots thought they were doing it all for the good. It was assumed that the result of the bombing would be the end of the war. Before departure, the pilots visited the church. They also received ampoules of potassium cyanide. This was done to avoid the pilots being captured.
Before the bombing, reconnaissance operations were carried out in order to ascertain the weather conditions. The area was photographed to estimate the extent of the explosion.
No extraneous factors were given to the bombing process. Everything went according to plan. The Japanese military did not see objects approaching the target cities, despite the fact that the weather was favorable.

After the explosion, the "mushroom" was visible at a great distance. At the end of the war, newsreel footage of that region was edited and it turned out documentary about this terrible bombardment.

The city that was to be attacked was the city of Kokura. On August 9, when a plane with a nuclear bomb (“Fat Man”) on board circled over the target city, the weather made its own adjustments. High cloud cover has become a hindrance. At the beginning of the ninth morning, two partner aircraft were supposed to meet at their destination. The second aircraft did not appear even after more than half an hour.

It was decided to bomb the city from one plane. Since the time was lost, the aforementioned weather conditions prevented the city of Kokura from being affected. Early in the day, it was discovered that the aircraft's fuel pump was faulty. Together with all the events (natural and technical), the aircraft with nuclear weapons had no choice but to attack the insurance city - Nagasaki. Landmark for dropping the atomic bomb in the city, became the stadium. This is how the city of Kokura was saved and the city of Nagasaki was destroyed. The only "luck" of the city of Nagasaki was that the atomic bomb did not fall in the place where it was originally planned. The place of her landing turned out to be farther from residential buildings, which led to less severe destruction and less massive loss of life than in Hiroshima. People who were within a radius of just under a kilometer from the center of the explosion did not survive. After the explosion in the city of Hiroshima, a deadly tornado formed. Its speed reached 60 km/h. This tornado was formed from numerous fires, after the explosion. In the city of Nagasaki, the fires did not result in a tornado.

The results of a terrible tragedy and a human experiment
After such a monstrous experiment, humanity learned a terrible radiation sickness. Initially, doctors were concerned that the survivors were symptomatic of diarrhea and then died after a severe deterioration in their health. In general, nuclear weapons are massive, because of their damaging properties. If a conventional weapon had one or two destruction properties, then a nuclear weapon had an extended range of action. It includes damage by light rays, which lead to skin burns, depending on the distance, until complete charring. The shock wave is capable of destroying concrete floors in houses, which leads to their collapse. And a terrible force, like radiation, haunts people to this day.

Even then, after the completed nuclear experiment in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, people could not even imagine the scale of the consequences. Those who survived directly, after the atomic explosions, began to die. And no one could handle it. Everyone who was injured but survived had serious health problems. Even years later, the echo of the American nuclear experiment resonated with the offspring of the victims. In addition to people, animals were also affected, which subsequently had offspring with physical defects (such as two heads).

After the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet Union enters the conflict. The Americans achieved their goal. Japan announced its surrender, but subject to the preservation of the current government. In the Japanese media appeared information about the end of hostilities. All of them were on English language. The gist of the messages was that the enemy of Japan had a terrible weapon. If military operations continue, such weapons can lead to the complete extermination of the nation. And they were right, it's pointless to fight a weapon of this magnitude if one bombardment can destroy all life within a radius of a kilometer and inflict huge losses at a greater distance from the center of the explosion.
General results

After the horrifying consequences nuclear explosion in Japan, the United States continued to develop atomic weapons and this process included their longtime adversary - the Soviet Union. This marked the beginning of the Cold War era. The most terrible thing is that the actions of the American government were carefully thought out and planned. During the development of nuclear weapons, it was clear that they would bring colossal destruction and death.

The cold-bloodedness with which the American army prepared to assess the consequences of the destructive power of weapons is appalling. The obligatory presence of residential areas in the affected area suggests that people in power begin to flirt with other people's lives, without any twinge of conscience.
In the city of Volgograd, there is a Hiroshima street. Despite the participation on different sides of the military conflict, the Soviet Union helped the destroyed cities, and the name of the street testifies to humanity and mutual assistance in conditions of inhuman cruelty.
Today, young people, under the influence of propaganda and unreliable facts, have the opinion that the Soviet army dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

After the Interim Committee decided to drop the bomb, the Target Committee determined the locations to be hit, and President Truman issued the Potsdam Declaration as Japan's final warning. The world soon understood what "complete and utter annihilation" meant. The first and only two atomic bombs in history were dropped on Japan in early August 1945 at the end.

Hiroshima

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped its first atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. It was called "Baby" - a uranium bomb with an explosive power equivalent to about 13 kilotons of TNT. During the bombing in Hiroshima there were 280-290 thousand civilians, as well as 43 thousand soldiers. Between 90,000 and 166,000 people are believed to have died within four months of the explosion. The US Department of Energy estimated that in five years at least 200,000 or more people were killed by the bombing, and in Hiroshima, 237,000 people were killed directly or indirectly by the bomb, including burns, radiation sickness, and cancer.

The atomic bombing of Hiroshima, codenamed Operations Center I, was approved by Curtis LeMay on August 4, 1945. The B-29 aircraft carrying the Kid from Tinian Island in the Western Pacific to Hiroshima was called the Enola Gay, after the mother of the crew commander, Colonel Paul Tibbets. The crew consisted of 12 people, among whom were co-pilot Captain Robert Lewis, bombardier Major Tom Fereby, navigator Captain Theodore Van Kirk and tail gunner Robert Caron. Below are their stories about the first atomic bomb dropped on Japan.

Pilot Paul Tibbets: “We turned to look at Hiroshima. The city was covered with this terrible cloud ... it boiled, growing, terribly and incredibly high. For a moment everyone was silent, then they all spoke at once. I remember Lewis (co-pilot) hitting me on the shoulder saying, “Look at this! Look at it! Look at it!" Tom Ferebby feared that radioactivity would make us all sterile. Lewis said that he felt the splitting of atoms. He said it tasted like lead."

Navigator Theodor Van Kirk recalls the shockwaves from the explosion: “It was like you were sitting on a pile of ash and someone hit it with a baseball bat… The plane was pushed, it jumped, and then a noise similar to the sound of sheet metal being cut. Those of us who have flown over Europe quite a bit thought it was anti-aircraft fire close to the plane." Seeing an atomic fireball: “I'm not sure any of us expected to see this. Where we had clearly seen the city two minutes ago, now it was no more. All we saw was smoke and fire crawling up the mountainside.”

Tail gunner Robert Caron: “The fungus itself was a stunning sight, a seething mass of purple-gray smoke, and you could see the red core, inside which everything was burning. Flying away, we saw the base of the fungus, and below a layer of debris several hundred feet and smoke, or whatever they have ... I saw fires starting in different places - flames swinging on a bed of coals.

"Enola Gay"

Six miles under the crew of the Enola Gay, the people of Hiroshima were waking up and getting ready for the day's work. It was 8:16 am. Until that day, the city had not been subjected to regular aerial bombardment like other Japanese cities. It was rumored that this was due to the fact that many residents of Hiroshima emigrated to where President Truman's mother lived. Nevertheless, citizens, including schoolchildren, were sent to fortify houses and dig fire-fighting ditches in preparation for future bombardments. This is exactly what the residents were doing, or else they were going to work on the morning of August 6. Just an hour earlier, the early warning system had gone off, detecting a single B-29 carrying the Kid towards Hiroshima. The Enola Gay was announced on the radio shortly after 8 o'clock in the morning.

The city of Hiroshima was destroyed by an explosion. Of the 76,000 buildings, 70,000 were damaged or destroyed, and 48,000 of them were razed to the ground. Those who survived recalled how impossible it is to describe and believe that in one minute the city ceased to exist.

College professor of history: “I went up Hikiyama Hill and looked down. I saw that Hiroshima had disappeared… I was shocked by the sight… What I felt then and still feel, now I simply cannot explain in words. Of course, after that I saw many more terrible things, but this moment when I looked down and did not see Hiroshima was so shocking that I simply could not express what I felt ... Hiroshima no longer exists - it is in general all I saw was that Hiroshima simply doesn't exist anymore.

Explosion over Hiroshima

Physician Michihiko Hachiya: “There was nothing left but a few reinforced concrete buildings…Acres and acres of the city was like a desert, with only scattered piles of bricks and tiles everywhere. I had to rethink my understanding of the word "destruction" or pick up some other word to describe what I saw. Devastation might be the right word, but I don't really know the word or words to describe what I saw."

Writer Yoko Ota: “I got to the bridge and saw that Hiroshima was completely razed to the ground, and my heart was trembling like a huge wave ... the grief that stepped over the corpses of history pressed on my heart.”

Those who were close to the epicenter of the explosion simply evaporated from the monstrous heat. From one person there was only a dark shadow on the steps of the bank, where he sat. Miyoko Osugi's mother, a 13-year-old fire-fighting schoolgirl, did not find her sandaled foot. The place where the foot had stood remained bright, and everything around was blackened from the explosion.

Those residents of Hiroshima who were far from the epicenter of the "Kid" survived the explosion, but were seriously injured and received very serious burns. These people were in uncontrollable panic, they were struggling to find food and water, medical care, friends and relatives and tried to escape from the firestorms that engulfed many residential areas.

Having lost all orientation in space and time, some survivors believed that they had already died and ended up in hell. The worlds of the living and the dead seemed to come together.

Protestant priest: “I had the feeling that everyone was dead. The whole city was destroyed… I thought it was the end of Hiroshima – the end of Japan – the end of humanity.”

Boy, 6 years old: “There were a lot of dead bodies near the bridge… Sometimes people came to us and asked for water to drink. Their heads, mouths, faces bled, pieces of glass stuck to their bodies. The bridge was on fire… It was all like hell.”

Sociologist: “I immediately thought that it was like hell, which I always read about ... I had never seen anything like this before, but I decided that this should be hell, here it is - fiery hell, where, as we thought, those who didn’t escape… And I thought that all these people that I saw were in the hell that I read about.”

Fifth grade boy: "I had the feeling that all the people on earth had disappeared, and only five of us (his family) remained in the other world of the dead."

Grocer: “People looked like… well, they all had blackened skin from burns… They had no hair because the hair was burned, and at first glance it was not clear whether you were looking at them from the front or from behind… Many of them died on the road - I still see them in my mind - like ghosts ... They were not like people from this world.

Hiroshima destroyed

Many people wandered around the center - near hospitals, parks, along the river, trying to find relief from pain and suffering. Soon, agony and despair reigned here, as many injured and dying people could not get help.

Sixth-grader girl: “Swollen bodies floated on seven previously beautiful rivers, cruelly breaking into pieces the childish naivete of a little girl. The strange smell of burning human flesh pervaded the city, which had turned into a pile of ashes."

Boy, 14 years old: “Night came and I heard many voices crying and groaning in pain and begging for water. Someone shouted: “Damn it! War cripples so many innocent people!” Another said: “I am in pain! Give me water!" This man was so burned that we could not tell if he was a man or a woman. The sky was red with flames, it burned like heaven had been set on fire.”

Three days after the United States dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, on August 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. It was a 21-kiloton plutonium bomb, which was called "Fat Man". On the day of the bombing, about 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 civilians, 9,000 Japanese soldiers and 400 prisoners of war. Until August 9, Nagasaki was the target of US small-scale bombing. Although the damage from these explosions was relatively minor, it caused serious concern in Nagasaki and many people were evacuated to rural areas, thereby reducing the population of the city during the nuclear attack. It is estimated that between 40,000 and 75,000 people died immediately after the explosion, and another 60,000 people were seriously injured. In total, by the end of 1945, about 80 thousand people died, presumably.

The decision to use the second bomb was made on August 7, 1945 in Guam. By doing so, the US wanted to demonstrate that they had an endless supply of new weapons against Japan and that they would continue to drop atomic bombs on Japan until she surrendered unconditionally.

However, the original target of the second atomic bombing was not Nagasaki. The officials chose the city of Kokura, where Japan had one of the largest munitions factories.

On the morning of August 9, 1945, a B-29 Boxcar, piloted by Major Charles Sweeney, was supposed to deliver the Fat Man to the city of Kokura. Accompanying Sweeney were Lieutenant Charles Donald Albery and Lieutenant Fred Olivy, gunner Frederick Ashworth and bombardier Kermit Beahan. At 3:49 a.m., the Bockscar and five other B-29s left Tinian Island for Kokura.

Seven hours later, the plane flew up to the city. Thick clouds and smoke from fires following an air raid on the nearby city of Yawata obscured much of the sky over Kokura, obscuring the target. Over the next fifty minutes, pilot Charles Sweeney made three bombing runs, but bombardier Beehan failed to drop the bomb because he could not visually identify the target. By the time of the third approach, they were discovered by Japanese anti-aircraft guns, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Bezer, who was monitoring the Japanese radio, reported the approach of Japanese fighters.

Fuel was running out, and the crew of the Boxcar decided to attack the second target, Nagasaki. When the B-29 flew over the city 20 minutes later, the sky above it was also covered with dense clouds. Gunner Frederick Ashworth proposed bombing Nagasaki using radar. At this point, a small window in the clouds, discovered at the end of a three-minute bombing approach, allowed bombardier Kermit Behan to visually identify the target.

At 10:58 a.m. local time, Boxcar dropped Fat Man. 43 seconds later, at an altitude of 1650 feet, about 1.5 miles northwest of the intended aiming point, an explosion occurred, the yield of which was 21 kilotons of TNT.

The radius of complete destruction from the atomic explosion was about one mile, after which the fire spread throughout the northern part of the city - about two miles south of the bomb site. Unlike the buildings in Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings in Nagasaki were of traditional Japanese construction - wooden frames, wooden walls and tiled roofs. Many small industrial and commercial enterprises were also located in buildings that were not able to withstand explosions. As a result, the atomic explosion over Nagasaki leveled everything within its radius of destruction to the ground.

Due to the fact that it was not possible to drop the Fat Man right on target, the atomic explosion was limited to the Urakami Valley. As a result, most of the city was not affected. The Fat Man fell into the industrial valley of the city between Mitsubishi's steel and arms works to the south and Mitsubishi-Urakami's torpedo works to the north. The resulting explosion had a yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, about the same as the explosion of the Trinity bomb. Almost half of the city was completely destroyed.

Olivi: “Suddenly, the light of a thousand suns flashed in the cockpit. Even with my tinted welding goggles on, I flinched and closed my eyes for a couple of seconds. I assumed we were about seven miles from ground zero and flying away from the target, but the light blinded me for a moment. I have never seen such a strong blue light, maybe three or four times brighter than the sun above us.”

“I have never seen anything like it! The biggest explosion I have ever seen... This column of smoke is hard to describe. A huge white mass of flame boils in a mushroom cloud. It is salmon pink. The base is black and slightly separated from the fungus.

“The mushroom cloud was moving straight towards us, I immediately looked up and saw how it was approaching the Boxcar. We were told not to fly through the atomic cloud because it was extremely dangerous for the crew and aircraft. Knowing this, Sweeney swerved the Boxcar sharply to starboard, away from the cloud, with the throttles wide open. For a few moments we could not understand whether we had escaped from the ominous cloud or whether it had captured us, but gradually we separated from it, much to our relief.

Tatsuichiro Akizuki: “All the buildings that I saw were on fire ... Electric poles were shrouded in flames, like many huge matches ... It seemed that the earth itself spewed fire and smoke - the flames twisted and ejected right from the ground. The sky was dark, the ground was scarlet, and clouds of yellowish smoke hung between them. Three colors - black, yellow and scarlet - swept ominously over people who rushed about like ants trying to escape ... It seemed that the end of the world had come.

Effects

On August 14, Japan surrendered. Journalist George Weller was "the first on Nagasaki" and described a mysterious "atomic sickness" (the onset of radiation sickness) that killed patients who outwardly appeared to have escaped the bomb. Controversial both at the time and for many next years, Weller's papers were not allowed for publication until 2006.

controversy

The debate over the bomb—whether a test demonstration was necessary, whether the Nagasaki bomb was necessary, and much more—continues to this day.

In the post-war years, the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with nuclear bombs developed in the United States was widely discussed. Until now, disputes about this episode, which claimed thousands of innocent lives, do not fade away. Consider the chronology of events before that fateful day and its consequences.

The history of the creation of a nuclear bomb in the United States

In the 1940s, the United States pioneered the use of nuclear weapons. The impetus for speeding up development was a message that Franklin Roosevelt received:

• according to one version, the famous scientist Otto Gann wrote a message about this in 1939;
• According to another version, Albert Einstein himself reported this.

In any case, the emergence of such destructive systems of destruction in the Nazi party was a serious problem for all parties to the conflict.

The new project was launched with the participation of German specialists who fled from the fascist regime. Prior to these events, they managed to work on a bomb, the main task of which was not to release maximum energy, but to pollute the territory. For this purpose, the level of radiation was assessed first of all.

The United States authorities allocated funds to finance the novelty, and Robert Oppenheimer was appointed chief engineer. It is this specialist who is considered one of the first who managed to create an atomic bomb.

The work was carried out in the strictest secrecy, but the British supported the States. Since for Great Britain the fascist nuclear bomb was a threat capable of destroying all the achievements at that time. It is known that they transferred their developments to the United States on their own initiative, but this immediately brought the country to the forefront of the arms race.

Manhattan Project

The project, which received the code name "Manhattan" (at the location of the research building), was overseen by Leslie Groves.

Already in the summer of 1945, the first tests were carried out. In the first prototype, plutonium acted as the reaction material. Undermining was carried out at the site, which was built up with artificial structures to assess the damaging factors.

The result of the experiment was:

1. The blast wave covered one and a half kilometers;
2. At 12 km, a column of mushroom-shaped smoke rose into the air;
3. All buildings prepared for the experiment were destroyed;
4. The earth and all the animals that happened to be nearby were burned to the ground.

Two weeks later, the military received the first tested sample. Already on August 6 and 9 of the same year, nuclear strikes were carried out on Hiroshima and Nagasaki - the only cases of the combat use of this destructive weapon, disputes about which have not subsided to this day.

Political conditions and prerequisites for the bombing

The prerequisites for the use of new weapons appeared a year before the bombing - in September 1944. Then an agreement was concluded between the President of the States and the Prime Minister of Great Britain, providing for an atomic strike.

The first operating projects appeared immediately after the tests, the British and Canadians provided support to the Americans.

Consideration of the bombing option began after an assessment of the likely losses in the American invasion of Japan. Experts proceeded from the fact that during the capture of Okinawa, more than 12 thousand American soldiers died (39 thousand were out of action due to injuries), the Japanese lost within 110 thousand fighters and almost the same number of civilians. The invasion of the country was to lead to even greater casualties.

The raid on Hiroshima was carried out on August 6, the delivery of the cargo was carried out by the aircraft B-29 "Enola Gay". The "Kid" was delivered to the Japanese city, equivalent to 13-18 kilotons of TNT.

Three days later, a "Fat Man" was dropped on Nagasaki, with even greater power, in the region of 21 kilotons.

As a result of the first strike, 90-166 thousand people died. The second took a little less - 60-80 thousand.

The formidable weapon made a tremendous impression on the Japanese ministers (Kantaro Suzuki and Togo Shigenori), which inclined them towards ending the war on the part of the island state. The date of August 15 became the time for the announcement of surrender, and on September 2 an act was signed, in fact, ending the Second World War.

Major economic centers

The choice of targets for the strike was made at the second meeting in Los Alamos, in the spring of 1945. Several cities that were of strategic interest had to be assessed and weeded out.

Options for bombing strikes:

• Kyoto. The city was the largest industrial center of the country;
• Hiroshima. On the territory there were army warehouses, a port of warships, the headquarters of the General Staff of the Navy and the Second Army;
• Yokohama. The heart of the military industry;
• Kokuru. The city hosted Japan's largest arsenal;
• Niigatu. Center for mechanical engineering, port of warships.

The idea of ​​inflicting a pinpoint strike exclusively on military targets was rejected, since the risk of a miss was high. The lack of an urban area around the bombing target could have nullified the effect.

It was important to assess the psychological aspects of the impact. First, it was necessary to intimidate the enemy as much as possible. Secondly, the first atomic strike was supposed to have an effect on the entire world community, emphasizing its significance.

The commission calculated all aspects of the location of likely targets. For example, Kyoto looked promising due to the higher education of the population, which means the ability to evaluate weapons more objectively. Hiroshima is surrounded by hills, which were considered as screens that could enhance the impact effect. Kyoto was subsequently crossed out by the US Secretary of War, who praised the city as a cultural center.

Resonance in the world

Until now, the question of ethical validity and the role that the bombings played in the surrender of Japan has been open. The main question that experts ask is: was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?

Supporters of the campaign highlight the following points:

• nuclear strikes are called the main reason for the surrender of Japan, which means they prevented the heavy losses on both sides that the invasion guaranteed;
• the swift surrender that followed ruled out loss of life elsewhere in Asia;
• Japan waged an all-out war in which there was no distinction between the civilian population and the army;
• the authorities of the island state categorically refused to stop the war, but the atomic bombs radically changed this opinion.

Opponents of the bombing believe that the strikes only added to a large-scale campaign. It is noted that there was no need for such a strong impact, and the idea itself is immoral. The campaign is called a war crime and state terrorism.

However, at the time of the events in question, there were no agreements and treaties at the international level prohibiting the use of the atom for military purposes.

Many experts consider Hiroshima and Nagasaki as a demonstration of the power of the States. Its purpose was to influence the Soviet Union before it entered into a confrontation with Japan on Far East. President Truman himself, until the end of his days, considered dropping the bombs the right decision, for which the United States would never apologize.

Assess the destructive power of nuclear weapons

It is difficult to overestimate the strength of the American strikes. Even after total loss connection with military installations, the Japanese authorities did not believe in the scale of the disaster. Only the arrival of an army officer at the scene made it possible to open one's eyes to the damage done.

The bombs themselves had a huge effect on the infrastructure, destroyed a huge number of people, including those who had nothing to do with the war at all. The psychological aspects are just as obvious, the demoralizing effect allowed to turn the tide of the war.

The weapon effects are as follows:

• shock wave of great power;
• thermal effect;
• radiation, subsequent radioactive contamination;
• fires;
• radiation sickness.

Each type of impact has its own duration. For example, if the shock wave instantly passes from the epicenter of the explosion, then the death of people from radiation sickness reaches peak values much later.

Details about the bombing of Hiroshima

The campaign began with the transfer of a mixed air group of Americans to the island of Tinian. This area was separated from other units of the US Air Force and heavily guarded. The Baby bomb was delivered on the cruiser Indianapolis at the end of July.

The order to use the new weapon was received and signed on 28 July. According to the document, after August 3, it was necessary to strike on any day, as soon as the weather allowed. Until August 6, the conditions did not allow the bombing to begin.

Hiroshima was the 7th city in Japan in terms of population - 340 thousand people (at the time of the impact due to the evacuation of 245 thousand). It was located on a flat land on 6 islands, just above sea level. In wartime, the city became one of the key supply bases for the army.

Most of the buildings were low (within 32 floors), manufacturing centers were located on the periphery. The risk of fire spread in such conditions was very high, the situation was aggravated by outdated fire extinguishing systems.

Hiroshima became the main target of a nuclear air raid, Nagasaki and Kokura were considered spares. From the point of departure, the target was 2500 km away, 6 aircraft headed towards it, which the Japanese radars recorded at 7 in the morning. Since the number of vehicles was determined to be small, fighters were not sent to intercept, as fuel was saved.

The bomb was dropped on the city center at 8 am, B-29 was at an altitude of 9 km. The fuses of the "Kid" worked at 43 seconds of the fall - within 400-600 meters above the roofs of houses. 16 hours later, US authorities reported the incident.

Description of bombs

The first versions of nuclear weapons were imperfect and relatively underpowered. For example, "Kid" contained 64 kg of uranium, but only 700 g were involved in the reaction. material.

"Little boy" had the following characteristics:

• weight - 4.4 tons;
• length 3 m;
• diameter 700 mm;
• power 13-18 kilotons.

The Fat Man had similar characteristics, but its power was increased to about 21 kilotons.

Bombers

The carriers of the bombs were selected B-29 aircraft, which acted as part of a link that included scouts. Hiroshima was attacked by a plane named "Enola Gay" and Nagasaki by "Bockscar". Structurally, they practically did not differ from other production aircraft.

Results and consequences of the explosion

All living things that were close to the epicenter outside the buildings died instantly, the bodies of people and animals turned into coal. At a distance of up to 2 km, paper caught fire, all combustible materials instantly flared up. The silhouettes of burnt bodies remained on the walls of the surviving buildings.

A powerful flash of light occurred near the epicenter, then a shock wave passed, knocking people off their feet even at a significant distance. Buildings could save only from the light, but in the first minutes after the detonation within a radius of 800 meters, 90% died. At a distance of up to 19 km, glass was shattered in the windows.

The fires that started formed a fiery tornado with wind speeds up to 60 km/h. He killed most of the survivors in the first 2-3 minutes in an area of ​​11 km2 from the epicenter.

The first victims of radiation sickness appeared 1-2 days after the raid. The peak of mortality occurred at 3-4 weeks, the decline manifested itself only at 7-9 weeks. The situation was complicated by the fact that up to this point, doctors had not encountered radiation sickness. Survivors suffered for the rest of their lives from the effects of infection and psychological aspects experienced.

Details about the bombing of Nagasaki

"Fat Man" was brought to the island of Tinian in two parts, respectively, July 28 and August 2. For this, aviation was involved.

Nagasaki was located in two valleys, a river flowed through each, the districts of the city were delimited by a ridge. The chaotic building occupied 90 m2, there was a large port, a developed industry working for the army. At the time of the American strike, about 200 thousand people lived in the territory.

It was decided to carry out the bombing on August 9 (originally planned on the 11th), as bad weather began later.

In the airspace of Japan, US aircraft were seen at 7:50, but already at 8:30 it was canceled for the same reasons as in Hiroshima. Initially, Kokura was chosen as the target, but the clouds prevented the attack, so the plane headed for Nagasaki.

Consequences of the explosion

The bomb exploded at an altitude of about 500 meters above the ground. Given the power, greater than that of the previous projectile, only an inaccurate hit and several other factors saved from huge losses:

• the blow fell on the industrial part, factories were located literally around the epicenter;
• in Nagasaki there were hills that saved a number of areas of the city;
• of the affected 110 km2, only 84 were inhabited, partially.

Almost all living things within a radius of a kilometer died, up to 2 km, destruction of almost all buildings was observed. Localized fires started, but without the Hiroshima whirlwind.

Was the bombing necessary?

It is difficult to answer this question unequivocally, however, it is quite realistic that the losses during the invasion could exceed the consequences of a nuclear strike. The problem is that most of the dead had nothing to do with the war at all - they were civilians, children.

The action of the Americans looks more like a "flexing muscle" than a real military necessity.

Nagasaki and Hiroshima today

For Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the consequences of the explosion are still being felt.

In 2013, more than 200,000 citizens remained in Japan who survived the American attack. This number includes the children of victims who lived in the country at the time of the recount. The spread of cancer has become a big problem. various types, which are fixed at 1% of the specified number. By that time, the total number of deaths from the bombing and its consequences exceeded 450 thousand people.

At first, no one was looking for protection from radiation, the population was not evacuated, and even the high mortality and illnesses could not be explained.

Now some objects of the city are of global importance. For example, in 1996, the building of the Hiroshima Chamber of Industry was included in the UNESCO heritage list.

71 years after the destruction of this city by an atomic bomb, it again raises the inevitable questions of why the United States dropped the bomb, whether it was necessary to force the Japanese to surrender, and whether the bombing helped save the lives of soldiers by making the invasion of the Japanese islands unnecessary.

Beginning in the 1960s, when Vietnam shattered the illusions of millions of Americans about the Cold War and the US role in the world, the idea that there was no need to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki began to gain ground. A new constellation of historians, led by economist Gar Alperovitz, have begun to argue that the bomb was dropped more to intimidate Soviet Union than to defeat Japan. By 1995, America was so divided on the need for and morality of the bombings that the Smithsonian's 50th anniversary exhibit had to be redesigned several times and ultimately drastically reduced. Passions cooled down when a generation of participants in that war left the stage, and scientists turned to other topics. But the president's visit will inflame them with renewed vigor.

Since passion, not reason, is the driving force in the debate, too little attention has been paid to the serious scientific work and documentary evidence that casts doubt on new theories about the use of the atomic bomb. As early as 1973, Robert James Maddox demonstrated that Alperovitz's arguments about the bomb and the USSR were almost completely unfounded, but Maddox's work did not significantly affect public perceptions of those events.

However, those who continue to claim that the real target of the atomic bombs was Moscow, not Tokyo, have to rely only on inferences about the thoughts of President Truman and his top advisers, since there is no documentary evidence of their feelings and mindsets. Meanwhile, other studies have made important contributions to this controversy. Thanks to them, we clearly understand that the Japanese had no intention of capitulating on American terms before the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that they intended to staunchly resist the planned US invasion, that they were well prepared for it, and that the consequences of a prolonged war on Japanese and American forces could be much more serious than the damaging effects of two bombs.

President Roosevelt, speaking at a conference in Casablanca in early 1943, publicly outlined the US goals in this war: the unconditional surrender of all America's enemies, allowing their territory to be occupied and new political institutions to be established in them at the discretion of the US. At the beginning of the summer of 1945, such conditions were accepted by Germany. But as Richard B. Frank, in his brilliant 1999 study Downfall (1999), shows, the Japanese government, knowing full well that it could not win the war, was completely unprepared to accept such conditions. First of all, it wanted to prevent the American occupation of the country and changes in the political system of Japan.

Knowing that American troops would be forced to land on Kyushu and then continue their offensive on Honshu and Tokyo, the Japanese planned a massive and very costly battle on Kyushu, which could lead to such serious losses that Washington would have to compromise. But something else is even more important. As a remarkable 1998 analysis of American intelligence shows, the Japanese managed to create very strong fortifications in Kyushu, and the US military knew about it. By the end of July 1945, military intelligence had changed their estimates of Japanese troop levels on Kyushu upwards; and the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, was so alarmed by these estimates that by the time of the first bombardment, he suggested to the commander of the invasion force, General MacArthur, that he reconsider his plans, and possibly abandon them.

Context

Obama Prepares for Hiroshima Visit

"Nuclear-free world" is moving away

Hiroshima: remember the victims

Multimedia

Hiroshima after the atomic explosion

From the Scene: The Atomic Bombings of Japan (AP)

After the nuclear explosion

Thus, the United States dropped the bombs to end the war that Japan launched in Asia in 1931 and reached the United States at Pearl Harbor. Thus, America managed to abandon the invasion, which could take hundreds of thousands of lives. Frank also claims in his work that many thousands of Japanese civilians may have starved to death during the invasion.

This does not mean that we can forget about the moral side of the atomic bombings that destroyed two cities. Since then, there has been nothing like it in the world. Apparently, the understanding of what atomic weapons can do has a deterrent effect on all parties. We must hope that this will never happen again.

But we are not arguing about the use of atomic bombs specifically, but about the attitude towards human life, including the attitude towards the life of the civilian population, which underwent changes for the better during the Second World War. In the years before the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, British and American strategists considered the destruction of entire cities a legitimate means of defeating Germany and Japan. Incendiary bombs dropped on Hamburg, Dresden, Tokyo and other cities resulted in losses comparable to the results of the atomic bombings in Japan. To my knowledge, no historian has yet attempted to understand why the notion of the legitimate need to bomb entire cities with their entire populations has become a common tactic in the British and American Air Forces. But such notions remain a sad testament to the ideals and morals of the 20th century. In any case, this threshold was passed long before Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Atomic bombings terrify us today, but at that time they were considered a necessary step to end the terrible war as soon as possible with minimal human losses. Careful historical analysis confirms this view.